








• TITUS 

{ nmmw 







Class S4C 
Book. ^- 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



'n 



FEEDING CHART, 



DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN DIGESTIBLE CARBOHYDRATES. DI GESTIBLE FAT . 
^1^' L 1 [ I 



ASH. 



FERTILIZER VALUE PER TON IN $: RUMINANTS. 

16,7 0.8 2.8 65.0 

— u az 



INDIGESTIBLE RESIDUE. 



NUTRITIVE RATIO: 




IML 



I. I 12.0 0.4 1.2 

■ — m - 



0.6 12. 3 0.4 1.1 

■ — m 



0.96 

09 1.5 



g.9 
9.7 



I 1.6 5 2.3 

It r 



ALFALFA, RED CLOVER, COWPEAS, SOY BEANS (AVERAGE) | :4.4 

39.2 10 7.1 I I .4 



SAME DRY (average; 
2 .0 5.6 17.9 



TIMOTHY AND CLOVER HAY (EQUAL PARTS) 
0.8 3.4 40.5 



CORN STOVER 

0. 5 4 2 9.6 



10 7.1 1.0 



CORN (kernels) ° 
_88.b 



CARROTS 

SWINE 



l;7. I 
3.1 J_-* I 1.3 



6.2 

6^ 

7j4 

31.0 



32.0 




CORN (KERNELS) 9 



CORN MEAL 



WHEAT SHORTS 1° • :5- I 

FiSEniNfi rinKT — Notes: l, 6, 7 Mvi'ick's Ken to Prqrit'iljlf Fefdiiiij. 2 (■oniposition. avcrnprp of all varieties: 
digestion foefficlent, dent corn. 3 Composition, Henry's tal)les. i Average dent and tliiit. .=■ .Massiicliusetts Experiment 
Station, ISdfi. 8 Averasje of all varieties. 9 Flint corn, digestion coetticients for dent being untivailahle. 10 Digestion 
coefficient for fat as.sumed from results with ruminants. E.xcept as noted, Chart is based on .loi-dans tigures. It will be 
observed ihat the nutritive ratio varies according to digestive power of animal, d'repared by ^\ illis Mac(„.erald.) 



Practical Farming and 
Gardening 

OR 

MONEY SAVING METHODS 



-IN 



Farming, Gardening, Fruit Growing, also Horse, 
Cattle, Sheep, Hog and Poultry Raising 

EMBRACING 

The All Important Subjects of Soil Fertility, Crop Culture, Irrigation and 

Drainage, Injurious Insects, Plant Diseases, Pruning, Grafting, 

Budding, Spraying, etc., together with Advice on 

Selecting and Feeding Farm Animals for the Greatest Net Profit, 
Making Poultry Pay, and Hundreds of Other Priceless 
Facts for the Wide-a-wake Farmer 
and Housewife 

By 
AN EMINENT ARRAY OF SPECIALISTS 

Each Having Devoted a Life of Study, Experiment and Practical 
Experience to His Special Subject 



EDITED BY 

WILLIS MacGERALD 

OF RANDMC NALLY & CO. 



THE S. A. MULLIKIN COMPANY 

MARIETTA, OHIO 
igi4 



"The Salvation of Soil Fertility is y 
the Salvation of Our Country." q^ 



Copyright igi4 

by 

The S. A. MuUikin Company 

All rights reserved 



^r-^"- 



i >i 



APP -2 \m 



Up 

^CLA369525 



f\A 



Introductory Note 

In publishing this book we Jay no claim to having exhausted the subject of farming. 
It has been found quite possible, however, to give in a single volume so clear an insight into 
the essentials of farming under modern conditions as will simplify the farmer's work and 
result in a saving of time, labor and money. 

"There are three classes of farmers," says Dean Davenport, of the Illinois State College 
of Agriculture; "one class studies, experiments, originates; another class emulates the suc- 
cess of the originator, imitates his methods, and in time learns to go to first sources for 
information; a third has little faith in 'book learning, ' and, misunderstanding success, 
will neither imitate nor learn. The whole tendency of modern times is to make farming so 
difficult a calling— so to raise the standard of competition — that the third class will be 
crowded to the wall and be forced into the poorest lands." 

It is for the class that puts brains into the management of soil, plants and animals that this 
volume has been published. It has been the endeavor throughout the text to give the reader 
the results of scientific research, coupled with successful experience by the use of only such 
expressions as can be readily understood by those who have not had a scientific training 
Thus any farmer with ambition to make the most of his labor and realize the greatest 
returns for his investment will find in this volume a priceless guide for everyday reference. 

The work has been divided into departments, each covering subjects of vital importance, 
and each prepared by a specialist in his line, who has devoted his life of thought, study, 
experiment and practical experience to his special subject. The list of authors whose names 
are familiar to wide-awake farmers will be found on another page in connection with the 
subjects covered by each. 

It is needless to say that the advantages to be gained from a single practical idea, taken 
from any of these departments and put into practice, is worth many times the small expense 
incurred in adopting the more approved methods. For example the use of the wrong kind 
of fertilizer; failure to use fertilizer when necessary; use of fertilizer when not needed; 
planting without proper preparation of soil; planting at wrong time or in wrong way; wrong 
methods in cultivation; allowing insects to destroy crops or fruits; allowing valuable stock 
or fowls to die from curable diseases, etc., etc., are common occurrences which a better 
knowledge of these subjects could easily prevent. It is poor economy indeed to save five 
dollars at the expense of a hundred. 

The purchaser of this volume who desires to know where to obtain reliable books on 
special farming subjects will find a list of such publications, with prices, following each 
department throughout this work. Any of these books may be ordered from the publishers 
whose names appear at the foot of title page, and the order will be filled promptly on receipt 
of list price. 

We now send forth this volume on its important mission with implicit faith in the 
intelligence of the American farmer to discriminate between gold and brass — wheat and 
chaff. The instructions this work contains have been secured from the highest obtainable 
authorities and not to be compared with the so-called "Farm Books" scrapped together from 
unreliable sources. To the thrifty tillers of the soil, upon whose shoulders to-day rest the 
responsibility for the prosperity of out nation; who have earned their honest dollars by 
the sweat of their brow, this volume is respectfully dedicated, with the hope that it may 
serve well its purpose in the special field of usefulness to which it is assigned. 

February 2, 1914. THE PUBLISHERS. 



Contents 



Paoes 
Modern Ideas in Soii^ Treatment and Tillage 5-48 

By Joseph J. Edgerton, B.S. A., Instructor in Agricultural Physics, Iowa College of Agriculture, 

Field Crops: Their Adaptations and Economic Relations, wih Specific 

Cultural Directions 49-82 

'By Joseph]. Edgerton, B.S. A. 

Vegetable Garden and Trucking Crops 83-110 

By Arthur T. Erxviii, Assistant Professor of Horticulture, loiva College of Agriculture. 

Fruit Culture and Forestry. 111-136 

By L. R. Taft, M.S., Horticulturist, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. 

Important Injurious Insects and Diseases Affecting Field and Garden 

Crops, Fruits and Shade Trees 137-206 

By E. S. G. Titus, M.S., Field Assistant to the State Entomologist of Illinois. 

Selecting and Feeding Farm Animals for Profit 207-281 

By Herbert II'. Munford, B.S., Professor of Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture, University 
of Illinois, and Chief of Anitnal Husbandry, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 

Beep Making 282-288 

By L. H. Kerrick, Bloomington, III., President of the American Aberdeen-Augus Breeder^ 
Association. 

Feeding Native Cattle for Beep 289-291 

By John P. Stevenson, Practical Farmer, Tarkio, Mo. 

Feeding Range Cattle for Beep 292-296 

By David Rankin, Practical Farmer, Tarkio, Mo, 

Diseases of Farm Animals 297-384 

By R. A. Craig, D.l'.M., Instructor in Veterinary Science, Purdue Uniziersity, LaFayette, Ind.: 
and Assistant State Veterinarian of Indiana. 

The Silo in Modern Agriculture 385-404 

By F. IV. Noll, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, Uniziersity of IVisconsin. 

Making Poultry Pay 405-452 

By Clarence Hewes, Rdttor of "Inland Poultry Journal,^'' Indianapolis, Ind. 

Handy Rules and Useful Information 455-469 

Wholesome Cooking Without Waste 470-499 

By Francois Tanty. 

Index 500-517 




TO °* S S 



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6i>5^ 



PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING 



Modern Ideas in Soil Treatment and Tillag'e 

By Joseph J. Edgerton, B. S. A. 
Instructor in AgriciMural Physics, Icncu College of Agriculture 

FUNDAMENTAL NOTIONS 

Modern farming, from the very nature of the case, represents no radical depar- 
ture from the best agricultural })ractice of earlier days. The advance that has been 
made is chiefly along the lines of a more thorough understanding of the principles 
underlying successful method ; of the systemization of agricultural research and har- 
monizing of results; and of the formulation of a body of flexible rules, more or less 
easily adaptable to the solution of individual difficulties. We can not get away from 
the necessity for experimentation ; for the science is intricate, and the conditions 
under which its laws operate are ever varying. But instead of being dependent upon 
his own experiments, as formerly, the farmer is now able, through the accumulation 
of recorded data of experiments systematically conducted, to profit by the experience 
of others. In many cases reference to this fund of accumulated experience will 
enable the present-day farmer to project his operations on a sure foundation, where 
otherwise he would be compelled to grope his way in the dark and with a great deal 
of uncertainty as to the final outcome. 

In the modern view, the soil is a laboratory, in which plant food is elaborated, 
and in which, under favoring conditions, the physical and chemical processes of 
organic growth are carried on. The soil had its origin in the rock masses of the 
eartlTs surface, from which it was broken down into its present form by the action 
of rain, snow, wind, changes of temperature, erosion by rivers and glaciers, the 
growth and decomposition of vegetation, the burrowing of various forms of animal 
life, and other similar agencies. Thus it will be seen that tlie bulk of the soil is 
decomposed rock, the additional material being organic matter — dead plant or 
animal tissue, returned to the earth that nourished it, and more or less completely 

(5) 



FUNDAMENTAL NOTIONS 




Fig. a. Photograph of total root of one hill of corn, showing 
depth to which this plant penetrates the soil in its search 
for moisture and food. (Prof. F. H. King: Physics of 
Agriculture.) 



broken down into its chemical con- 
stituents. This organic matter, 
called humus, is one of the most 
imjDortant factois to be consid- 
ered in the study of soil manipu- 
lation. 

Source of Plant Food — 
Plants, like animals, requii-e both 
food and water for their suste- 
nance. The water is obtained 
through the roots. Of the food 
materials, the carbon and a large 
part of the oxygen (which together 
constitute a large percentage of the 
dry matter of all plants) are, under 
the influence of sunlight, taken in 
through the leaves in the form of 
carbon dioxide,^ while the ash or 
mineral portion (composed essen- 
tially of nitrogen, phosphorus, po- 
tassium, calcium, sulphur, iron, 
magnesium, and possibly sodium 
and chlorine^) is taken up by the 
roots from the soil. These mineral 
constituents, wdtli the exception of 
nitrogen,'' are rendered available to 
the roots of the plants by the 



1 This gas exists in the air as a resultant 
product of animal respiration and decomposi- 
tion, and of combustion generally. 

2 There are other mineral elements found in 
the ash of plants, some of which, such as silica, 
are present in large quantities. Their presence, 
however, is only incidental, owing to their pres- 
ence in the soil water. They are not essential to 
the welfare of the plant. 

3 This element, owing to its great impor- 
tance, and the need of a thorough knowledge of 
its source and the means by which it may be 
increased, as well as the conditions under which 
it is lost, will receive especial attention iu an- 
other place. 



WHAT GOVERNS SOIL FERTILITY ? 7 

o-radual decomposition of the rock materials, and their subsequent solution in the 
soil waters. 

Thus physical and chemical action in the &oil are constantly transforming ^o^ew- 
tial into available plant food, and the soil water is transporting the salts thus 
prepared to the root hairs of the plant. This food-laden water is passed from cell 
to cell of the plant by what is called omiotic pressure,^ and the excess of water over 
what is required for purposes of growth finally is transpired from the leaves of the 
plant, leaving the salts behind to enter into the combination of organized tissue. 

This brings us to the consideration of the subject of 

SOIL FERTILITY 

Determining Factors — Soil fertility is dependent upon natural condi- 
tions and upon soil management, and may be defined as the ability of a soil to 
2)roduce in response to a given amount of assistance rendered if in the form of culti- 
vation. This term is too commonly used as referring only to the amount of the 
mineral elements a soil may contain in a soluble form. But in reality the quantity 
of salts or mineral plant food a soil may contain is only one of several factors that 
determine its fertility. In fact, it is a factor of rather secondary importance, 
because the most plentiful supply of plant food will fail to produce a crop in the 
absence of sufficient moisture to convey it to and through the plant. 

The quantity of soluble salts a soil contains is, nevertheless, of vital importance. 
While but a very small percentage of the total plant is made up of these elements, 
this little is just as necessary to the life of the plant as though it comprised the 
whole. The absence from the soil of any one of these elements will insure as com- 
plete a failure of plant growth as though they were all absent. If you plant seeds 
in a soil from which one of these essential elements, as potash, has been removed, 
there will be but a very feeble growth of two or three leaves to a plant, and this 
growth will be accomplished by the aid of the little of this element that nature 
has stored in the seed for the purpose of securing its germination and start in life. 
Some of these elements need to be present in much larger quantities than others. 
Iron, for example, is just as essential for the life of the plant as is any other 
element, but only a comparatively small percentage is necessary. 

In order for a soil to be fertile, it is necessary not only that these elements all 
be present in a soluble form, but that the quantity be many times greater than the 
immediate needs of the crop. This is owing to the fact that (a) the root hairs in 

1 Osmosis is the term applied to tiie diffusion of liquids through porous membranes. 



8 SOIL FERTILITY 

penetrating the soil come into contact with a ver}', very small part of it ; that (b) 
the capillary moisture is frequently so low tluit but a small portion of these salts is 
taken up thereby and moved into contact with the plant roots ; and that (c) the 
feeding period of the plant covers but a comparatively short space of time. 

It has been found by analyzing plants at various stages of development that, of 
the total mineral plant food taken up by a crop (wheat being used as an example), 
75 per cent of it is taken up during the first fifty days of the plant's life (or, in the 
case of wheat, by the time it has reached the height of eighteen inches). Consider- 
ing theae facts, it will be readily understood that not only must these materials be 
present in great abundance, but they must also be in readiness for plant use as 
early in the season as possible. This early availability will depend, especially as 
regards the nitrogen portion, upon the amount of moisture, air, vegetable matter, 
and heat there is in the soil. 

Alkali Spots — A soil may be unproductive, on the other hand, from con- 
taining too large a quantity of some of these essential salts. Thus are produced 
what are termed alkali lands, or alkali spots. Through the presence of an excess 
of these alkali salts the vegetation is corroded and killed. Such soils are referred 
to as alkali soils, and occur mostly in sections having natural or artificial irrigation. 
Small alkali patches occur more or less frequently in semi-humid regions where 
there is a seepage of Avater from higher lands. The soluble salts in these higher 
lands, being carried down by the seepage water and left behind upon its evaporation, 
accumulate to an extent that is injurious to vegetation. 

Keiuedy for Alkali Spots — There are two forms of alkali — the car- 
bonate or "black alkali" and the sulphate or " white alkali." The latter may be 
present in much larger quantities than the former without producing injurious 
results. 

If the soil is unproductive from too much black alkali, it may often be corrected 
in part by the application of gypsum or land plaster, to convert the carbonate into 
a sulphate. In irrigated sections it is well to examine the water used, and, if it is 
found to contain considerable quantities of carbonate salts, to use land plaster in 
the irrigation ditches to correct the condition of these salts before reaching the 
fields. 

In semi-humid climates these spots may often be temporarily remedied by scraping 
off the immediate surface after a long-continued drought, when the long-continued 
evaporation will have concentrated the greater portion of the excess of salts in the 
surface three or four inches of soil. Where the trouble is mild a good application 



SOURCES OF SOIL NITROGEN 9 

of a coarse i)arnyard maiini-e well worked into the soil will often afford temporary 
relief. The permanent remedy, however, is nnderdrainage. 

NITROGEN OF THE SOIL 

Ontside of the elements of plant food contained in water, the nitrogen of the 
soil is tlie only constitnent supplied to the plants through their roots, the source of 
Avhich does not lie in the rock fragments, and the supply of which can not he 
increased by improving the facilities for decomposition. 

Source — Its sonrce is the free nitrogen of the air, and the quantity in the 
soil may be increased naturally only by drawing upon this bounteous supply. 

How Obtained — Our ordinary farm crops can not use this nitrogen in its 
free form, but certain microscopical forms of life that grow upon the roots of 
leguminous plants (such as clover, lucerne [alfalfa], peas, beans, etc.), forming 
nodules tliereon, have the power of taiving this free nitrogen and converting it into 
organic nitrogen. In the subsequent decomposition of this organic matter the 
increased supply is made available for the use of succeeding crops. The amount o^ 
nitrogen that may be added to the soil by the growing of a single crop of some 
legume is often relatively very large. When the effect upon future crops or the 
commercial value of nitrogen as a fertilizer is considered, this collateral benefit 
derived fi;om a leguminous crop is often greater than the food value of the crop 
itself. » 

Except in soils well supplied with nitrogen, in the form ordinarily available, the 
leguminous plants will not thrive in the absence of these organisms. But if the 
organisms are present this family of plants will thrive luxuriantly even on soils con- 
taining little nitrogen. It follows that, while these organisms are parasitic in their 
nature, they are in reality a benefit to the host on which they grow. This relation 
of plants to each other, the growing together for mutual benefit, each obtaining 
support from the other, is called symbiosis. Some soils upon which clover ordinn- 
rily refuses to thrive, after being inoculated with these germs by the addition of a 
sprinkling of soil from an old clover field, will produce clover of the finest kind. 

Forms of Soil Nitrogen — Nitrogen exists in the soil in several distinct 
forms, representing tlie various stages of transition fiom the free nitrogen of the air 
to that form available for farm crops. It may be presont : 

1 Crimson clover, when from 5 to 6 inches high, has I per acre; in bloom, $37.06 per acre; fully matured, to 
been found to contain nitrogen to the value of $21.94 per the value of $4.3.36 per acre. (Report of the Superin- 
acre; from 12 to 14 inches high, to the value of $34.64 | tendent of Institutes for Ontario, Can., 1900.) 



10 



SOIL FERTILITY 



(a) As free nitrogen of the soil air, which is seized upon and made fast by the 
forms of microscopic life previously described. 

■ (b) As organic or albuminoid nitrogen, the product of these nitrogen-fixing 
germs, and likewise present in all undecomposed vegetable and animal tissue. This 
is the only form of soil nitrogen that is not soluble in water, and lience readily 
leached out and lost from the soil. 

(c) As ammonia, nitrous acid, and nitric acid. These are transition stages in 
the development of the nitrate or available form from the organic or albuminoid 
form. 

(d) As nitrates of lime, magnesia, potash, and soda. This is the form in which 
nitrogen is used by most farm crops, the nitrates being formed by the union of 
nitric acid with one of the bases — lime, magnesia, potash, etc. — ^ found in the soil. 

Nitrification — The process of developing nitrates from the decayed and 
broken-down albuminoids is termed nitnfication, and involves four distinct stages : 

(a) The ammonia stage, in which certain organisms, under the proper conditions of 
temperature, moisture, and air, feed upon the organic or albuminoid nitrogen, throw- 
ing off ammonia as a waste product. This is a highly volatile product, which, under 
improper soil conditions, may escape from the soil and pass off into the air as gas.^ 
But under the proper conditions the ammonia is absorbed by the soil and the 
soil water, and is retained for the use of another class of germs which in the 

(b) nitrous-acid stage use it in their life processes, throwing off nitrous acid as a 
waste product. Still another class of germs ^ take up this nitrous 
acid and oxidize it into (c) nitric acid, which attacks the bases that 
are held in the soil by weaker acids, displacing them and forming 
(d) the various niti'ate salts. These nitrates are formed only under 
favorable conditions of temperature, moisture, and air ; and, on the 

other hand, when once formed, they may, under subse- 
quent unfavorable conditions, be changed back into 

1 The pungent odor arising from a rapidly- 
fermenting manure heap is produced by am- 
monia that is being formed and is escaping 
to tlie air. 

2 These are called "nitre germs" or 
"mother of petre." Some idea of the amount 
of these nitrate salts that may be developed 
imder proper conditions may be obtained from 

Fig. 3. Drawing from photograph showing comparative growth a consideration of the fact that formerly the 
of peas, rye, flax, oats, wheat, and buckwheat in soil fertile in nitrate of potash for the manufacture of gun- 
all elements of plant food except nitrogen, the peas thriving powder was obtained from the soil. Thereby 
in virtue of the presence of nitrogen-flxing bacteria on their was developed what was termed " nitre farm- 
roots. (Prof. F. II. King: Physics of Agriculture. After ing," in which the soil was manipulated to 
P. Wagner.) get the most rapid nitrification possible. 





SOIL WATER ESSENTIAL 



11 



forms unavailable to crops, or even be lost from the soil. 'I'liis brings us to the 
consideration of another process, called : 

Deiiitriflcatioii — This process, as the name implies, is exactly the opposite 
of nitrification. The soil is full of micro-organisms that require oxygen for their 
existence, and their ability to extract it is such that, if the soil becomes so filled with 
water as to exclude the air, they will take away that which is combined in the 
nitrates, either partially or wholly deoxidizing them. In the latter case the nitrogen 
is set free and may escape entirely from the soil. 

Soils Lacking in Nitro^^en — A soil that has little nitrogen in the avail- 
able form will give indication of the fact in the yellow, slender, unhealthy condition 
of the leaves of the vegetation growing upon it. 

To the other elements of plant food obtained from the soil, and the best means 
of maintaining or increasing their quantity, reference will be made under the head 
of " Vegetable Matter as a Factor of Fertility." 



SOIL WATER AS AN ELEMENT OF FERTILITY 

It has been seen that water is the vehicle whereby food, in solution, is conveyed 
to the root hairs and distributed throughout the plants, besides entering largely into 
the vegetable structure.* It is therefore as essential -^i^^.-Jy- •■., 

an element of fertility as is the mineral plant food. '"''[■''''■'S''''-^^ 

Many soils containing a very high percentage of soluble 
plant food are a barren waste because of lack of 
moisture, and it follows, by the same token, 
that any addition of commercial fertilizers to 
soils deficient in plant food will prove ineffec- 
tual unless conditions of moisture are 
right. 

The great semi-desert regions of 
our western plains, as well as most, 
if not all, similar regions the world 
over, show the presence, upon chem- 
ical analysis, of a large percentage 
of soluble plant food, and numerous 




1 Water comprises from 61 to 91 per cent of the 
total weight of all green crops, the amount varying 
with the kind of crop and stage of development. 



Fig. 4. Drawing from photograph showing oats growing 
under conditions identical with those illustrated in Fig. 3, 
except that the several pots received 1, 2, and 3 grams, 
respectively, of Chile saltpetre. Comparisor. shows the 
immense importance to such plants of nitric nitrogen. 
(Prof. F. H. King : Physics of Agriculture. After P. 
Wagner.) 



12 ' SOIL FERTILITY 

experiments have demonstrated that all that is necessary to make these waste places 
fruitful is simply to supply the needed moisture. 

But water, on the other hand, must not be too abundant. It must not fill all the 
pores of the soil so as to exclude the air, or the land will be rendered unproductive 
while this condition exists. Plants that will thrive in water will not thrive in a soil 
saturated with water, because in the water culture the water is free to move, and, the 
constant change bringing different parts constantly to the surface and into contact 
with the air, a certain amount of this air is absorbed, replacing any that may have 
been taken out by the roots ; whereas, in a soil saturated Avith Avater there is not this 
opportunity for the air to enter. 

Water in soils is of three kinds — hygroscopic, capillary, and free. 

The hygroscopic water is present in the form of a film around each soil grain. 
Pressure will not expel it. Only heat above the boiling point of Avater Avill drive 
it off. 

Capillary Avater is the outer film around the soil grain, more or less closely filling 
the interstices, less firmly held than is the inner hygroscopic film by the molecular 
attraction of the soil, and capable of motion in any direction under stress of capil- 
lary attraction. 

Free water is that Avhich lies outside the range of control of the molecular attrac- 
tion of the soil grains, and moves under the influence of gravity. This Avater 
practically excludes oxygen from the soil it occupies. Its surface is called the 
"Avater table." The capillary Avater is the only form of soil moisture that to any 
extent can be made use of by the plants. 

Water Required by Crops — The amount of Avater required in the proc- 
ess of plant building is very large, the various farm crops requiring to be tran- 
spired through their leaves from 300 to 600 tons of Avater for each ton of dry 
matter produced. 

According to Prof. F. PI, King, the results of 138 trials with various farm 
crops shoAv that, to grow an average acre, the product of which Avas 5.987 tons of 
dry matter, required 23.165 inches of water. The crop requii'ing the most Avas oats, 
the average yield of this crop being 8.89 tons ; and Avater required, 39.53 inches. 

Capacity of Soils for Capillary Water — The amount of capillary 
water that may be retained in a given qnantity of soil Avill depend upon the fineness 
of the soil particles, the amount of vegetable matter present,* the general physical 

1 The effect of vegetable matter upon the capil- I under the head of "Vegetable Matter as a Factor of 
laiy capacity of soils will be referred to more fully I Fertility." 



AETIFICIAL IRRIGATION 



13 



condition, the distsince above the water table, and the frequency and amount 
of rainfall. Prof. F. H. King has found that under field conditions, and with tlie 
surface only eleven inches above the water table, soils would contain capillary 
water as follows : 

Clay loam 32. 2 per cent. 

Clay - 23. 8 to 24.5 percent. 

Claj' and sand _ 22 6 per cent. 

Fine sand 17. 5 per cent. 

This, when averaged and reduced to inches, is equal to 31.24 inches of water 
distributed thi-ough the first five feet of soil.^ 

Water not all Available to Crops — Of this capillary Avater only from 
50 to 75 per cent can be extracted by the crops for their use, owing to the fact that 
the roots, Avhile thoroughly permeating the soil, actually come in contact with only 
a very small part of it ; and to the additional fact that, wlicn the water move- 
ment through the plant for the translocation of materials falls below a certain rate, 
growth ceases to take place. Long before this point is reached, growth becomes 
very slow and imperfect. It frequently happens, in the absence of a properly dis- 
tribnted rainfall, that this condition is reached just as the crop is ready to form the 
seed or grain. The result is an average and sometimes large growth of foliage, 
but little grain. 

Time of Greatest Need — By far the largest portion of the water used 
by a crop is required from the time of blossoming to maturity. This period fre- 
quently coincides with one of very limited rainfall. 

IRRIGATION 

It follows from what has been said that the artificial application of moisture 
may often, even in humid climates, be very beneficial to crops, and the farmer of 
a humid climate, who is so situated that he can at comparatively small expense 
maintain a storage supply of water for such use in time of need, will find this a 
very profitable investment. In fact, the returns should be greater in proportion to 
the amount invested than in arid countries, where all the water must be supplied 
in this way. A little additional water applied just at the right time may be pro- 
ductive of large results, even in average years.^ 



1 A 5-foot column of the same soil would contain 
less, because the water table would be much farther 
away from part of it than In the above case. 

2 Prof. F. H. King reports the following result of an 
experiment conducted with a variety of flint corn: On 
the irrigated soil, 14.5 tons of dry matter were produced ; 
while on the same kind of soil, growing the same kind 
of corn, not irrigated, but otherwise receiving the same 



treatment, there were produced only 4 tons of dry mat- 
ter per acre. 

In an experiment conducted by the writer during a 
year when the distribution of the rainfall was better 
than the average, an application of water equal to 5 
per cent of moisture in the first four feet of soil resulted 
in increasing the yield of corn from 68 to 91.5 bushels 
per acre. 



14 



SOIL FERTILITY 



The quantity of water required to irrigate a tract of land is seemingly very 
large. To cover one acre of land one inch deep will require 3,630 cubic feet of 
water ; and to carry this depth of water onto 100 acres, in 50 hours, would require 
a stream one square foot in cross-section, and flowing at the rate of two feet per 
second. 

TILLAGE TO CONSERVE MOISTURE 

Since the annual rainfall for a given locality, while fairly constant, is irregular 
and uncertain as regards its distribution throughout the season, and since irriga- 
tion is not generally practicable, it becomes necessary to conserve the soil moisture 
and to make the available supply of capillary water as large as possible. These 
ends are accomplished by such means as proper tillage, underdrainage, and in- 
creasing the supply of humus. 

Deep plowing and subsoiling on heavy, close-textured clay soils may loosen 
them up and increase their water-holding capacity. This practice is especially 
applicable in climates Avhere the frost does not penetrate to loosen up the subsoil. 
Frequent stirring of the surface soil cuts off the capillary connection with the 
deeper soil water, and thus prevents its coming to the surface and being evaporated, 
besides checking the growth of Aveeds that would absorb moisture needed by the 
crop. This frequent stirring to check evaporation is necessary for the reason that 
when the surface is allowed to stand for a short time the capillary connection with 
the lower ground becomes reestablished. In case of a rain this reestablishment takes 
place very quickly ; so, to retain the largest possible amount of a given rainfall, it is 
necessary to thoroughly stir the surface soil as soon after the rain as it can be done 
without jJnddling.^ Tools used for this purpose should be such as will stir all the 
surface and pulverize it as thoroughly as possible. 

The Harrow — If tlie surface soil has been previously made very loose, or if 
it is somewhat rough as left by the plow, harrowing, thoroughly done, may develop 
a very good mulch. If, however, the surface has become somewhat firm, as after a 
heavy rain, the harrow may increase the loss by evaporation by simply cutting small 
furrows and increasing the amount of surface exposed. 

The Disk — The disk-harrow or cultivator, as well as the surface cultivators 



1 Very fine-grained soils have a tendency, owing to 
the close contact of their particles, to contract upon 
themselves at all times. When they become very wet 
this tendency is increased. If stirred at the proper 
stage, as the excess of moisture is leaving, this tendency 
is readily overcome. If, however, this cultivation is 
done before a sufficient amount of water has been re- 



moved, all parts of the soil subjected to the pressure of 
the horses' feet and the tools used will be compressed 
still more, excluding the air and reducing the capillary 
capacity of the soil. These portions, when dry, form 
hard clods, and this cementing action in soils is termed 
puddling. 



TILLAGE TO COARSER VE MOISTURE 15 

with blades running horizontally under the surface, form an excellent mulch. The 
surface is practically all moved and deposited in a different place and in a finely 
jiulverized condition, thus cutting off the capillary connection very completely. 

Effectiveness of the Soil Mulch — Professor King found that a 3-inch 
soil mulch, as against no mulch, conserved from evaporation during a period of 100 
days on a black marsh soil 2,928 inches of water ; on sandy loam, 3.009 inches ; and 
on virgin clay loam, 13.458 inches. 

Depth of Mulch — The same investigator found that during a 100-day period 
a 3-inch mulch conserved 0.181 inches more water than a 2-inch mulch, and the 
2-inch mulch conserved 0.11 inches more than a 1-inch mulch when stirred in the 
same manner twice a week. 

Frequency of Cultivation — Professor King also found that a 3-inch 
mulch, when stirred twice a week, conserved 0.323 inches more water than wlien 
stirred once a week, and that stirring once a week conserved 0.586 inches more than 
stirring only once in two weeks. 

The necessity for frequent cultivation will depend, howevei-, upon the condition 
of the weather and the character of the soil. Dry weather immediately following 
the stirring makes the mulch more effective and more lasting. 

On a close-grained soil, as clay, the particles tend to di-aw together and reestab- 
lish capillary connection much more quickly than on a coarser, looser soil, or a soil 
well supplied with vegetable matter. Hence, the former will require more frequent 
stirring than the latter in order to maintain an equally good condition of mulch. 

Plowing — The time and manner of plowing may affect the quantity of mois- 
ture available for a given crop. Ground plowed late in the fall and left in the rough 
will catch and hold the snows and rains, and will contain a larger amount of moisture 
the next spring than similar soil left unplowed. On land that is to be put into a 
fall crop, moisture will be conserved for the starting of that crop by plowing as early 
as possible after the spring croj) has been removed, to save what would otherwise be 
evaporated through the growth of weeds and other vegetation. Spring plowing, 
for the greatest saving of moisture, should be done as early as the soil is in fit con- 
dition. When the frost leaves the ground, capillary connection between the lower 
soil and the surface is very complete, and the warm, dry winds that are apt to occur at 
this time of year frequently cause a rapid evaporation of moisture. At this season 
a loss of 28.2 tons of water per acre per day for seven consecutive days has been 
observed. For the same reason, land that has been plowed in the fall should be 
gone over with the disk-harrow or other effective tool as early in the spring as the 



16 SOIL FEETILITY 

condition of the soil will permit, for the purpose of developing a mulch. In the 
same way, also, evaporation may be checked on unplowed land, where there is more 
of it than can be plowed in good season. 

For the conservation of moisture, plowing at any time of year except late in 
the fall should be followed immediately by thorough harrowing. Ground freshly 
plowed, unless very mellow, will allow the air to circulate more or less freely 
throughout the greater portion of its depth. Such a condition, owing to the large 
amount of surface exposed, affords an opportunity for very rapid evaporation, and 
if allowed to go uncorrected, in a dry time, may so reduce the water content of the 
plowed portion that seeds can not germinate. The writer knows of one instance 
where there was no rain from the tiuie of plowing in the spring until late in the 
summer, and land that was plowed and left for some time without harrowing became 
so dry that the corn, when planted, did not germinate until the autumn rains ; 
while other tracts in the same locality which were not allowed to lie over night, or 
even during the noon hour, without harrowing, and were kept well cultivated after- 
ward, were by this diiference in treatment enabled to produce a fair crop of corn. 

The Roller — This implement is used mainly for the purpose of firming the 
plowed soil, to bring the particles into closer contact. Through this reestablish- 
ment of capillary connection with the deeper soil, the water may be drawn up from 
the lower levels into the seed-bed, to aid in the germination of the seeds and starting 
the young plants. When the roller is used it should be followed by some implement 
that will stir the immediate surface into a dry dust mulch, in order to prevent this 
water, when drawn up, from reaching the surface and escaping by evaporation. 

Level culture will conserve the moisture better than ridged cultivation, there 
being less surface exposed for evaporation. There is quite a prevalent notion that 
ridged cultivation will increase the yield of potatoes, but experiments do not bear it 
out. Late ridging, after the potatoes are set on, may be of some benefit in protect- 
ing the tubers from the sun. 

UNDERDRAININO TO CONSERVE MOISTURE 

The lowering of the water table by underdrainage, on lands where it remains a 
considerable portion of the time nearer to the surface than four feet, will increase 
the amount of water available to plants in two ways *. 

(a) By increasing the supply of capillary water. 

(b) By permitting a greater root development. 

(a) Capillary Svipply — The removal of the free water from a soil removes. 



EFFECT OF UXDERDRAINAGE 



17 



to a great extent, the tendency of fine-grained soils to 
contract into a puddled condition, also allowing the 
various aggregations of jiarticles to become broken up 
and separated, and the soil to become more free and 
open generally. In this way the amount of capillary 
water that a cubic foot of the soil will retain is greatly 
increased. This n)ore open condition of soil allows 
a free passage of Avater through it in all directions, 
and enables a much larger proportion of a dashing 
rain to enter it instead of running off the surface. It 
also enables the surface to more quickly get in readi- 
ness for cultivation after a I'ain, so that a mulch may 
be developed, to prevent that which is taken in from 
being lost by evaporation. 

(b) Root Develoi>ineiit — The root sys- 
tems of farm crops do not, as many suppose, confine 
themselves to the few inches of soil at the surface, 
unless compelled to do so by a saturated soil or other 
impassable barrier. Tlicre are few of our farm crops 
but will penetrate to a depth of four feet if the soil is 
in proper condition. 

AYhere the soil is free and open to a good depth 
there will be a much larger and better developed 
root system, with corresponding increase of capacity 
for absorbing and carrying moisture to the plant. 
This last is a most important factor, as it frequently 
happens, where the water table stands high during 
the early part of the season, that there is so small a 
development of roots that, when the plant reaches 
the stage of most rapid development and most rapid 
transpiration of moisture, the roots will not be able 
to take in water fast enough to supply the needs of 
growth, even with a comparative abundance of water 
present in the soil.^ 

J- It is due to this fact that crops thrive and develop so much better 
iu a dry summer if preceded by a moderately dry spring than when pre- 
ceded by a wet one. 
2 




Fig. 5. Photograph showing root de- 
velopment of oats. (Prof. F. H. 
King: Physics of Agriculture.) 



18 SOIL FERTILITY 

HUMUS AS A CONSERVER OF MOISTURE 

The supply of humus/ as a factor in controlling the capillary supply of mois- 
ture, can not be too highly valued. Its presence (a) produces a more porous con- 
dition of soil, (b) prevents the soil particles from drawing together in a puddled 
condition, (c) increases the actual capillary capacity, and (d) tends to prevent the 
solidifying of the surface, thus serving to check evaporation in the absence of cul 
tivation, and making necessary less cultivation to maintain a good mulch. 

AIR AS AN ELEMENT OF FERTILITY 

As we have seen, air is necessai'y in the soil to supply oxygen for the develop- 
ment of the nitrogenous plant food, and in its absence, though only temporary, this 
plant food, once developed, may be reduced into an unavailable form, or even lost 
from the soil. 

Air is also needed for the processes of decomposition and other chemical action 
that develop the various forms of plant food. Without air in the soil, the seeds of 
farm crops will not germinate. If after germination the air be excluded, they will 
cease to grow, will get yellow and sickly, and, if this condition continues long enough, 
will die. A soil may also be too oj)en and admit of a greater circulation of air than 
is best. A very coarse, gravelly soil ; land into which a large amount of coarse 
manure has been plowed ; or a piece of poorly plowed laud left without any further 
treatment, may in this way be subject to a loss of moisture by internal evaporation. 

The supply of air in the soil may be modified by (a) tillage, (b) kind of vegeta- 
tion grown, (c) underdrainage, and (d) the addition of vegetable matter. 

(a) Ventilation by Tillage — Almost all the different processes of tillage- 
produce a change of air at the time, and also affect the movement of soil air for 
some time to come. Plowing a hard, compact soil breaks it up and admits a freer 
entrance and circulation of air, whereas, the plowing in of vegetable matter on soils 
that are too loose and open will result in a beneficial restraint upon this movement. 

Subsoiling will increase the air movement in the deeper soil. 

Harrowing may check the entrance and escape of air on fresh-plowed land where 
ventilation is excessive, or facilitate the aeration of lands that have lain without 
stirring until a crust has formed over the surface. Disking and stirring Avith the 
various forms of cultivators give more thorough aeration to the seed-bed. 

Rolling, by closing up the pores to some extent, usually results in a lessened 

1 The influence of humus on moisture will be discussed more in detail under the head of " Vegetable Matter 
as a Factor of Fertility," page 23. 



importa:N'CE of soil warmth 19 

amount of air movement in the soil, and, on soils that are too open, will be beneficial 
for this purpose. 

(b) Ventilation by Veg'etation — The growth of any kind of vege- 
tation, by drawing the moisture out of the soil, tends to draw air in to take its 
place. The decomposition of the roots of deep-feeding plants leaves openings that 
admit of a greater aeration of the deeper soil. 

(c) Ventilation by Underdrainage — Underdrainage modifies the 
amount of air in the soil: (1) By removing the free water that would 'otherwise 
exclude the air. (2) By loosening up the soil and giving greater freedom of 
movement. (3) The water in passing from the soil into the drain will tend to 
draw the air into the soil to fill the space it has occupied. 

(d) Ventilation by Addition of Hnnius — Vegetable matter, added 
to the soil in the form of barnyard manure, stubble, weeds, sod, and other green 
crops, plowed under, will have the eifect of making a close, heavy soil more open, 
and of binding together those that are too thoroughly aerated. 

TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTING FERTILITY 

A proper soil temperature is an indispensable factor of a high degree of fertility. 
No matter how perfect the other conditions, if the temperature is too low germina- 
tion and growth will not take place. Corn, for example, requires a soil temperature 
of 60° to 65° Fahr. during a portion of the day, for satisfactory germination. If 
the soil is so cold as to allow only slow and feeble germination the crop can never 
make the growth and development that it would under the same after-conditions, 
but with a good, vigorous start. 

A certain degree of warmth is required also for the various chemical changes 
incident to the decomposition and development of plant food. This is especially 
true of the nitrogenous plant food. The nitrifying germs do not thrive below a 
temperature of 55° Fahr., and do not attain their most rapid growth and elabora- 
tion of nitrates until the soil temperature gets well up toward 100° Fahr. 

The temperature of the soil also affects the rate of plant-feeding. As we have 
seen,^ the water and plant food of the soil are supplied to the plant by osmotic 
pressure, and this, as well as the capillary movement of the soil water, is to a 
marked degree affected by the temperature. If the soil temperature falls below a 
certain point, this action may become so feeble as to allow the plants to wilt when 
there is an abundance of water present in the soil. 

1 See page V, footnote. 



20 SOIL FERTILITY 

Poor Stands of Grain are often caused, not by poor seed, as supposed, 
but because the seed was placed in a soil too cold for germination. The above con- 
sideration, coupled with the facts that the soil temperatures, under average field 
conditions, between latitudes 40° and 45°, will not average above 45° Falir. for the 
month of April, or 58° Fahr. for the month of May, and that plants require the bulk 
of their nitrogenous food during the early stages of growth,^ emphasizes very 
strongly the need of increasing the temperature of the soil, especially early in the 
spring. 

Conditions Affecting- Soil Temperature — These conditions are as 
follows : (a) Color of soil, (b) topography of surface, (c) smoothness and compact- 
ness of surface, (d) tilth, (e) wetness of soil, (f) rate of evaporation, and (g) amount 
of vegetable matter being decomposed therein, 

(a) Color of Soil — A dark-colored surface will absorb and pass on to the 
deeper soil more heat from the sun than will a light-colored one, the difference 
ranging from 1° to 3° Fahr.*^ 

(b) Topography — A south slope will receive the sun's rays more nearly verti- 
cally than will a level field; hence a given cross-section of heat rays will be spread 
over less surface of soil than on a level surface, or one sloping away from the sun. 
Professor King found that a stiff red clay soil, sloping 18° to the south, had a tem- 
perature of 70.3°, 68.1°, and 66.4° Fahr. for the first, second, and third feet in 
depth, as compared with 67.2°, 65.4°, and 63.6° for the same kind of soil and the 
corresponding depths on a level surface. 

(c) Smoothness and Compactness — A rough, uneven surface, owing to the 
greater amount of surface exposed, will radiate back into the atmosphere a larger 
portion of the heat received than will an even surface. If the roughness is due to 
a cloddy condition this loss is aggravated, since the poor connection between the 
clods and the underlying soil prevents the heat being conducted downward. A 
firm, compact soil will conduct the heat into the deeper soil much more readily 
than one that is very loose and open. 

(d) Tillage — It follows. from what has Just been said that thorough culti- 
vation, especially if deep, hinders the conduction of heat to the deeper soil. But 
while the total amount of heat stored in the soil may be lessened on this account, 
the temperature of the cultivated portion is very much increased by this concentra- 
tion. This is one of the chief advantages to be gained by a thorough and early 

^ See page 9, footnote. I 2 A light-colored soil may be made materially darker 

I by the addition of vegetable matter. 



SOIL TEXTURE AND FERTILITY 21 

preparation of the seed-bed. Tillage also favors a more rapid decomposition of the 
organic matter in the soil, which action produces heat. Thorough ])reparation 
further increases the temperature of the seed-bed by removing any excess of mois- 
ture that may exist, and by checking evaporation from the surface. 

(e) Wetness of the Soil — A wet soil is colder than a similar soil when dry, 
for two reasons: (1) The various chemical changes which produce heat are taking 
place less rapidly, (3) It requires a greater amount of heat to raise the tempera- 
ture of a pound of wet soil through any given number of degrees than to effect an 
equal increase of temperature in the same weight of dry soil. The siDecific heat of 
water is much greater than that of soils. To raise the temperature of water a given 
number of degrees requires nearly ten times as much heat as for sand, weights 
being equal in both cases. The matter of removing all excess of moisture is there- 
fore very important, from this standpoint. For the same reason the manner of 
removing should be by underdrainage rather than by evaporation. 

(f) EvAPORATiox — This process has a marked cooling effect upon the soil, as 
much heat being required to evaporate a pound of water from the surface of the 
soil as would raise through se^jeral degrees the temperature of a cubic foot of average 
soil. Professor King records a difference in temperature, in favor of drained as 
against undrained soil, as great as 12.5° Fahr. on a cloudy day, and states that the 
difference is due mainly to difference in rate of evaporation. 

(g) Effect of Vegetable Matter — The decay of vegetable matter in the soil 
increases its temperature (1) by making it darker colored, so that more of the sun's 
heat will be absorbed, (2) by lessening evaporation of water from the surface, and 
(3) by reason of heat produced in the jn-ocess of decomposition.' 

MECHANICAL. STRUCTURE AND ITS RELATION TO FERTILITY 

The size of the soil particles, and tlieir mechanical relation to one another, is 
not the least of the factors that determine the value of a soil for the production of 
crops. Soil grains vary in size from the coarse grains of sand down to particles so 
fine that they can be seen only by the aid of a powerful microscope. The smaller 
the particles, the larger the amount of soil-grain surface in a cubic foot of soil. A soil 
with particles of a given average size contains practically ten times as much surface 
as one whose particles are ten times as large. The amount of surface, other things 
being equal, determines the rate of solution of the mineral plant food. 

1 Everyone is familiar with the generation of heat in 1 proportionally upon the decomposition of all organic 
the fermenting manure heap, and with the use of ma- matter everywhere, 
nure to develop heat in hotbeds. The same result follows | 

3 



22 SOIL FEETILITY 

The amount of surface also affects the amount of moisture that may be held in 
the form of a film around the soil gi'ains. The amount of surface also is a measure 
of the amount of feeding ground allotted to the plant roots growing in the soil. A 
column of soil one foot square and four feet in depth (to which depth the roots of 
most of our farm crops j)enetrate), whose particles have an average diameter of .01 
of an inch, would expose a surface of .34 of an acre, while one whose particles aver- 
aged .001 of an inch would have a soil-grain surface area of 3.4 acres. The size of 
the soil particles very materially affects the amount of pore space in a soil, as well as 
the size of the pores. The larger the particles, the larger the pores, but the smaller 
the aggregate amount of pore space ; ^ and a greatly lessened proportion of this 
space will consist of pores small enough to hold water, or to draw it from the deeper 
soil by capillary attraction. 

It follows from the foregoing that, generally speaking, the finer the soil the 
more capillary water it will retain, and the greater will be its power to draw water 
from supplies deep down in the earth. It is possible, however, for both water 
movement and water capacity to be lessened by an extreme fineness of soil grains. 
In the case of an extremely fine clay soil the particles may be so drawn together 
by their attraction for each other, rendering the interspaces extremely fine, as to 
permit only a comparatively small amount of water to enter these various aggrega- 
tions. An extremely fine-grained soil, with its consequent fine i)ore spaces, is 
unfavorable to thorough aeration ; neither does it idlow the roots proper freedom in 
penetrating and exploring the feeding ground. Any tendency toward a puddled 
condition in these soils is apt to affect the uniformity of development of the root 
systems, and in the case of tuberous crops, as potatoes, or root crops, such as sugar 
beets, may materially affect the condition and quality of the crop. 

How Certain Physical Defects may be Remedied — (a) Tillage 
when the soil is in proper condition will break up tiie contracted condition and 
increase the aeration and capillary capacity of the surface portion of very fine soils. 

(b) Freezing expands these soils, forcing the particles apart. Its beneficial 
effects on a stiff clay soil can hardly be estimated, especially if not counteracted by 
heavy rains after the frost goes out. The thoroughness' with which the frost does 
this work can not be duplicated by the use of any tool or combination of tools. 

(c) Underdrainage, to prevent the free water remaining in the sqII, is a great 
factor in preventing its contraction. 

1 The amount of pore space in a cubic foot of soilthat 1 from a little more than one-third in the case of a fine 
is unoccupied, or occupied only by air or water, varies | gravel to over one-half in some of the finest clay soils. 



FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS 



23 



(d) Tlie growth of grasses whose roots will thoroughly fill the upper soil, and 
of the legumes, whose larger roots penetrate the deeper soil, is an important aid in 
loosening up and expanding these soils. The decaying roots and other vegetable 
matter, if sufficient in quantity, will effectually prevent their contraction into a 
puddled condition, Avill render them con- 
stantly more loose and open, will make them 
much more easily cultivated, and, in fact, 
will improve them in every way. Decaying 
vegetable matter also tends to bind together 
those soils that are too coarse and wliose 
pores are too large, increasing their water- 
holding capacity and decreasing evapoi'ation 
therefrom. 

VEGETABLE MATTER AS 
A FACTOR OF FERTILITY 

Lands continuously cultivated gradually 
diminish in productive capacity The growth 
of any kind of vegetation, as we have seen, 
takes up a certain amount of various mineral 
elements from the soil. The discovery of 
this fact, and of the additional one that these 
several substances are necessary elements of 
plant food, naturally led to the conclusion 
that the loss in productive capacity must be 
due to the diminished supply of mineral 
plant food, and that any successful effort to 
maintain or increase the fertility of a soil 
must lie in the direction of replacing these 
elements by artificial means.* 

The table ^ on the following page shows 
how much of each of the three elements 
most readily lost from the soil is removed 
therefrom in the production of various crops. 




Photograph showing root development of 
" 3I01 



Fig. 6. 

medium red cfover. (Prof. F. H. King : Physics 
of Agriculture.) 



1 In some of the States more than $0,000,000 is ex- 
pi'nded annually for commercial fertilizer.s in an effort 
to increase the productiveness of the land. 



3 Adapted from publications of the United States 
Department of Agriculture. 



24 



SOIL FERTILITY 



Fertilizing Constituents Removed from Soil by Given Quantities of Certain Crops 



KIND OF CROP. 



Weight of 
Material. 



Nitrogen. 



Potash. 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 



Alfalfa, dry 

green _ 

Barley, grain only 

Beans, kernels only _ - 

Beets, red, roots only 

yellow fodder, roots only 

sugar (whole plant, to produce one ton roots). 

Buckwheat, dry hajr - - - 

green, in blossom __ 

Cabbage 

Carrots 



Clover, Alsike dry _ _ - - - - 

green - -- -. 

crimson, dry 

green 

red, dry _ - - - _ - . 

" green 

white, dry - 

green -.. 

Corn, field (kernels and cobs) 

fodder, dry (with ears) 

sweet (whole plant, to produce one ton husked ears) . 

Cotton (to produce 100 lbs. lint) 

Cow-pea, dry, whole plant ^ 

green 

Flax (to produce 100 lbs. fiber) 

Hemp (to produce 100 lbs. clean fiber) — 

Hops, leaves and stems — 

Kentucky blue grass _ _ - - - - - 

Lettuce leaves -. 

Millet, dry _ - 

green - 

Oats, hay, in bloom 

" green fodder --. -- — 

grain only .__ -- -- 



Onions 

Parsnips - 

Peas, dry, in bloom _ - 

" green __ 

" seed only 

Potatoes, Irish, tubers - 

sweet, roots — 

Pumpkins, whole fruit - 

Rice, uuhuUed grain only - . 

Rye, grain only 

Sugar cane, leaves and tops removed 

Timothy hay 

Tobacco (to produce one ton leaf) 

Tomatoes, fruit - 

Turnips, roots 

Wheat, winter (to produce one ton grain) . 



Poimds 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
,500 to 3,060 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
5,260 

947 
2,000 
2,000 

687 

598 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
2,000 
1,600 to .3. 000 
2,000 
2,000 
5,000 



Pounds 
44.00 
14.40 
35.00 
80.00 

4.80 

3.80 

4.60tol2.00 

16.70 

10.20 

7.60 

3.20 
46 60 

8.80 
40.00 

8.60 
42.00 
10.60 
50.00 
11.20 
28.20 
36.00 
15.20 
20.71 
39.00 

5.40 
12.37 

6.27 
15.00 
23.80 

4.60 
25.60 
12.20 
24.00 

9.80 
40.00 

4.00 

4.40 
66.00 
10.00 
80.00 

4.20 

4.80 

2.20 
26.80 
35.00 

3.40 

25.20 

44 to 120.10 

3.20 

3.60 
51.11 



Pounds. 
34.00 
11.20 
12.00 
24.00 

8.80 

9.20 

5.54 to 17.20 

48.40 

8.60 

8.60 
10.20 
40.20 

4.00 
25.00 

9.80 
40.00 

9 20 
.30.00 

4.80 

9.40 
18.00 
17.80 
13.06 
29.40 

6.20 

7.29 
10.13 
17.60 
31.40 

7.40 
34.00 

8.20 
50.80 

7.60 
12.00 

3.50 
12.40 
.34.00 
11.20 
20.00 

5.80 

7.40 

1.80 

5.60 
11.00 

2.17 

.30.60 

70 to 170 

5.40 



Pounds. 
10.60 

2.60 
15 00 
24.00 

1.80 

1.80 

1.47 to 4.74 

12.20 

2.20 

2.20 

0.20 
14.00 

2.20 

7.60 

2.60 
10.00 

2.60 
14.00 

4.00 
11.40 
11.00 

5.80 

8.17 
10.60 

2.00 

6.76 

3.32 

8.00 

8.00 

1.40 
10.00 

.3.80 
13.40 

2.60 
16.00 

2.50 

3.80 
10.20 

3.60 
16.00 

1.40 

1.60 

3.20 

9.40 
16.00 

1.48 

9.20 
11.8 to 20.4 

1.00 

2.00 
22.22 



It is the gravest error, however, as has been previously pointed out, to consider 
that the f ertiUty of a soil depends upon its supply of mineral plant food ; neither is 
it any more correct to consider the supply of soluble mineral plant food in any soil 
as a definite amount, like so much horse feed in a barrel, to be drawn upon until 
exhausted, with no power in the barrel to renew the supply. As has been shown, all 



HUMUS THE PRIME ESSENTIAL 25 

soils have their origin in the rock masses of the earth, and wliat lias been developed 
from a given material may continue to be developed therefrom under like condi- 
tions; under improved conditions the rate of its development may be accelerated. 
If there Avere no means of replacing tliese elements from the foundation soil, the 
estimates that have so conmionly been made as to the number of years a given 
soil might be expected to produce a certain crop, based upon the amount of plant 
food in the soil as shown by chemical analysis, and the quantity taken up by an 
average growth of this crop, would be entirely erroneous. 

This method of calculation takes no account of leaching, which in humid or semi- 
humid climates is very great, there being leached out of an average soil by the 
percolating waters from five to seven pounds of plant food for every pound taken 
up by the crop. 

It is also a decided error to refer to the sale of so many pounds of plant food, 
contained in grain, as the only, or even the greatest, evil resulting from the continued 
production of grain crops and their sale from the land. Even if the whole croj) 
were returned to the soil, there would be replaced oiily 15 to 20 per cent of the 
mineral plant food that has been given up by the soil during the production of 
that crop. 

As the rock fragments are decomposed and dissolved, a part is taken up by the 
plants, and, as we see, a much larger part is carried away by the percolating waters 
to the sea, to be again laid down, to go through the process of rock formation, and 
perhaps at some future day to repeat the process now going on. 

It may still be asked, what causes the reduction in fertility, if not the reduction 
of the amount of soluble plant food? 

The answer is, a lessening of that element in the soil which not only afEects, but 
very largely controls, all the factors of fertility heretofore discussed, namely, humus. 

Effect of Hviinvis on Mineral Plant Food — The supply of vege- 
table matter in the soil not only improves the mechanical condition thereof as 
i-egards the decay of the rock fragments, but the heat generated by its decom- 
l)Osition and the humic acid supplied therefrom are among the most potent agents 
in rendering soluble the mineral plant food. 

The following experiment is given to show the effect of vegetable matter in 
decomposing and rendering soluble the inert mineral matters of the soil. It also 
illustrates the loss of this soluble plant food from a soil, aside from what is taken 
up by the crop, as the soil was kept bare. Two boxes were filled with soil identi- 
cally the same, except that to one was added 20 per cent of its weight in cow 



2fi SOIL FERTILITY 

manure. These boxes were treated exactly alike for twelve months, the soil 
receiving an occasional stirring. At the end of this period an analysis showed an 
increase of 30 per cent in the soluble plant food of the soil to which manure was 
added, after making allowance for what was contained in the manure, while that 
which received no manure showed a loss in soluble plant food of 4.36* per cent. 

According to a series of experiments that have been cairied on for a number of 
years at the Minnesota Experiment Station, continuous grain-cropping where (a) no 
manure was applied resulted in the reduction of the humus content of the soil at 
the rate of 1,500 to 1,800 pounds an acre per annum. But where (b) a rotation was 
practiced that had clover for one of its factors, and had the second-growth clover 
plowed under as green manure, there was at the end of the first complete rotation 
"not only no decrease, but a very decided increase, in the amount of humus in the 
soil. The amount of soluble plant food was very greatly reduced in the first case, 
while in the latter there was a decided increase. This, too, in spite of the fact 
that the rotation lands had in consequence thereof produced larger crops which had 
consequently removed more plant food from the soil. The increase in yield was five 
bushels of wheat and twenty bushels of corn to the acre. 

The more abundant the vegetable matter in the soil, the more rapid will be its 
oxidation and reduction. It is found also that the amount of soluble plant food is 
reduced much more rapidly than is the humus content, the change in this latter 
showing itself very quickly in its effect upon the mechanical condition of a soil, and 
consequently upon the decomposition of its particles. 

Professor Snyder has done quite extensive work in the way of collecting and ana- 
lyzing soils that have been cropped in various ways ; also of soils that have not been 
cropped at all. He finds that a native prairie soil contains about twice as much 
vegetable matter, and three to five times as much of the more important elements of 
plant food in a soluble form,'as adjacent soils that have been continuously cropped 
with grain for fifteen or twenty years, while many farms that have been under culti- 
vation for much longer periods, but which have been allowed to produce an occa- 
sional crop of timothy and clover (receiving now and then a dressing of manure), 
remain in a condition almost equal to that of the native soils. One particular 
instance may be cited. Of two adjoining farms, both under cultivation for thirty- 
five years, and originally alike, one has received frequent dressings of manure, has 
produced wheat, corn, oats and timothy, and clover in rotation, and shows no 
apparent decline in fertility. The other has grown grain continuously without 
receiving any manure or vegetable matter in any form. During the first few years 



HOW HUMUS 0ON"SEEVES MOISTURE 27 

heavy crops were raised, but during the past few years the yields have been very 
low, especially in dry years. It is estimated that the producing power of this piece 
of land has been reduced 68 per cent. A neighboring farm that has been under 
cultivation for forty-two years, and has received a systematic rotation, with a (b'ess- 
ing of manure, every five years, at the rate of ten tons per acre, is in even better 
condition than the one first mentioned. 

Effect of Humus on Moisture of Soils — It has been found tlmt a 
native prairie soil will retain about 30 per cent more moisture than one that has 
been continuously grain-cropped for fifteen or twenty years. 

Some samples of soil taken in 1899, to a depth of four and one-half feet, showed 
the following relation to each other in percentage of moisture and total volatile 
matter. The samples were taken on the same day on land that was almost level 
being taken from adjoining plots, which had produced the same kind of a crop, 
and had had the same kind of cultivation and treatment throughout the season. 
The results are averages for the four and one-half feet in depth. 



SAMPLE. 


Vegetable Matter 
Per Cent. 


Moisture 
Per Cent. 


No. 1 -- . . .. . ^ 


2.. 37 
4.5 


11.93 


No. 2 . ... -• 


21 7 







A soil will not yield all its water to plants. In a good average soil, plants can 
not reduce the moisture below 6 or 7 per cent. So that soil Xo. 2 contained at the 
time of sampling less than twice as much vegetable matter and more than two and 
one-half times as much available moisture as No. 1. In experiments to determine 
the effects of manure upon evaporation it has been found that a good application 
of well-rotted manure, well worked into the soil, will reduce the evaporation to the 
extent of one ton of water per acre per day. 

To show the effect upon the moisture capacity of a soil produced by an extreme 
amount of vegetable matter, the following example is given : This sample was 
taken on a piece of permanent pasture land and to a depth of four feet. The per- 
centage of vegetable matter present was 34.66, and the moisture content was 
63.13 per cent. 

During the extreme drought of 1901 the moisture was so conserved on a plat 
very rich in vegetable matter, as to result in a yield of over eighty ])ashels of corn 
to the acre ; while a plat a few rods distant, on practically the same level and 



28 



SOIL FERTILITY 




Fig. 7. Pliotograiih of corn, showing 
moisture-conserving effect of vege- 
table matter in the soil during a dry 
season. (Edgerton.) 



receiving the same cultivation, but poor in hnmus, 
produced less than twenty bushels per acre. (Figs. 
7 and 8.) 

The loss of vegetable matter produces a decided 
effect upon the soil in another way especially notice- 
able in wet seasons or after heavy rains. As the 
vegetable skeleton is decomposed the soil particles 
are allowed to come together more closely and form 
greater obstruction to the passage of the excess of 
water through them, so that even if well under- 
drained a much longer time is required for the sur- 
face to get in proper condition for cultivation, and 
for the soil to receive a new supply of air for the 
use of roots and the various germs. The writer has 
known this difference in vegetable content to mean, 
on the one hand, the almost continual exclusion of 
air from the soil, 
with no opportunity 
for cultivation; and, 
on the other hand, 
fairly good aeration, 
a fair opportunity 
for cultivation, and 
a good healthy 



growth of crop. (Figs. 9 and 10.) 

Effect on Aeration — In soils that are at 
all comjiuct the problem of improving the aeration 
is a very important one, and for this purpose no 
treatment or manipulation can be applied that will 
duplicate the effect produced by the presence of 
decaying vegetable matter. Tillage will open up 
the surface portion but can not extend to the deeper 
soil. After the soil is stirred, in the absence of a 
good supporting vegetable skeleton, it tends to 
settle and draw together again, gradually cutting off 
the air movement. In very fine soils a heavy rain, 




Fig. 8. Photograph of corn grown on 
soil having the same elevation and 
located only a few rods from that 
which produced corn shown in Fig. 7, 
but which, by reason of long cultiva- 
tion, contained a very small amoimt 
of vegetable matter. (Edgerton.) 



INCREASING THE HUMUS CONTENT OF SOILS 29 

soon after the stirring takes place, may cause almost an entire suspension of- air 
movement. The jiresence of a good supply of vegetable matter will maintain a 
constant open condition on any Avell-drained soil under almost any conditions of 
rainfall. , The growth and decomposition of somewhat fleshy roots, as of clover 
and alfalfa, open up passageways for the air into the deeper soil. On soils that 
are too coarse and open, vegetable matter, by increasing the amount of water held 
and binding the particles together, also by partially filling some of the larger inter- 
spaces, tends to hold in check the excessive air movement of such soils and thus to 
lessen internal evaporation. 

Iiiflvieiice on Soil Temperatvire — As we have observed, the temper- 
ature of a soil is a very imj)ortant factor. Vegetable matter affects temperature 
(a) by making the soil darker in color, and enabling it to absorb more of the sun's 
heat; (b) by lessening evaporation, which is a cooling process; (c) by enabling the 
soil to get rid of its surplus water by percolation, so that the same amount of heat 
will raise the temperature of the soil to a higher degree ; (d) by its decomposition, 
and by furnishing conditions more favorable for the action of the countless germs 
in the soil, and for the more rapid decomposition of the mineral matters. Almost 
all of these processes of decomposition generate more or less heat. 

Methods of Increasing the Hnmns Content of Soils — As pre- 
viously stated, the production of a cultivated crop on an average soil Avill result in 
the loss from that soil of from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds of humus per acre, which in 
some manner must be replaced if the fertility of the soil is to be maintained. There 
are three ways in which this may be done ; (a) By the application of manure, (b) 
by proper rotation of crops, and (c) by a combination of the first two. 

(a) Application of Manure — From what has been said it is but a logical 
deduction that the sale of the roughage from the farm, or the burning of the straw, 
is far worse for the fertility of that farm than is the sale of the grain portion of the 
crop, inasmuch as the greater portion of the vegetable fiber of a crop is contained 
in the fodder portion. If lands are to produce grain or other cultivated crops 
continuously, and to be maintained solely by the application of manure, they will 
require a dressing of at least fifteen tons of well-rotted manure every five years, 
or as may sometimes give better results, a dressing of three tons each year. This 
should be thoroughly worked into the soil. 

The time of application should be governed by the crop that is to follow. More- 
over, unless manure is plowed in soon after being drawn, the condition and topog- 
raphy of the surface will have a great deal of influence upon the loss that may 



30 



SOIL FEETILITY 



occur. Manure spread and allowed to lie for some time on a stiff clay, with an 
unplowed surface, especially if rolling, or on rolling ground when frozen, may be 
subjected to heavy loss by the action of rains leaching through it and carrying 
portions of it away in the surface drainage. 

(b) Pkoper Rotation — This means not only that various crops shall be 
grown, but tbat the variation shall be such as to allow the ground to be covered a 
portion of the time with crops, perennial in their nature, that do not require culti 
vation, so that they may be left to occupy the ground long enough for their roots 

to thoroughly ramify the soil. It has been clearly 
demonstrated that such a system may result, not 
only in maintaining the supj)ly of vegetable matter 
in a soil, but in increasing it, while at the same 
time, larger crops are being produced. 

As regards the crops adapted for this purpose: 
Some of the leguminous plants should be used in 
the rotation, as they will not only increase the supply 
of nitrogen, but, their roots being large and pene- 
trating deeply, they will open up and add humus to 
the deeper soil. Some of the grasses that develop a 
good sod, as timothy, blue grass, or orchard grass, 
should also have an occasional place in the systemj, as 
their roots permeate all parts of the soil most com- 
pletely and greatly improve its mechanical condition, 
especially as regards the upper portion, or that which 
forms the seed-bed. 

(c) Combining Rotation with Applications 
OF Manure — A combination of the two methods 
just described is much better than either one alone. 
The application of manure can not well be made 
to reach the subsoil with its physical effects, and, 
on the other hand, the soil may be improved much 
more rapidly by the addition of manure than by 
rotation alone. Also, if so desired, a larger per- 
centage of grain crops may enter into the rotation 
""'^IrdSirgSVb^e'rlT^^^^^^^ without injury to the land, if the rotation is supple- 

StumusiKroll'TEdgert^S mentcd with an occasional dressing of manure. 




BENEFITS OF STOCK-RAISING 



81 



MIXED FARMING 

The surest way to improve the fertility of a piece 
of hmd, or even to maintain it, is to employ such a 
mixture of stock and grain-growing that practically 
all the grain and roughage that is raised on the farm 
will be consumed thereon. If no stock is kept, the 
only incentive for rotation is the improvement of the 
soil, and consequently it is too apt to be neglected. 
If there is a considerable amount of stock the grow- 
ing of grasses and clover has for its additional purpose 
the supplying of pasture and hay for the animals. 
In the latter case, also, the manure, a large part of 
which is sure to be lacking in exclusive grain-grow- 
ing, is a consideration of value. 

The kind of stock used is of minor importance 
so long as it is such a class or combination of classes 
as to utilize the "roughness" for either food or bed- 
ding. It is very much better to have the straw worked 
into manure by utilizing it for bedding than to let it 
rot in the stack. 

Bedding should be used freely enough with all 
•animals to absorb all the liquid, as there is often moie 
plant food voided in the urine than in the solid ex- 
crement. Furthermore, the liquid portion of the 
excrement is in such condition as to be very readily 
transformed into available plant food and thus to give 
quick returns for its application. 

There is a difference, however, in the concentra- 
tion and mechanical division of the excrement from 
the different classes of animals which renders the 
immediate effects of their application decidedlv 
different. For example : The application of one 
ton of sheep manure Avill produce much greater im- 
mediate results than the same amount of the manure 
of cattle, the difference in concentration making it 
somewhat richer (it has a considerably less percentage 











,1 










, Ai 


m/\i' .I^\' 










• 










n 



Fig. 10. Photograph of corn grow- 
ing on the same level and only 100 
feet from that shown in Fig. 9, on 
land having the same underdrain- 
age, but with a larger quantity of 
vegetable matter in the soil. (Edg- 
erton.) 



32 SOIL FERTILITY 

of water), and the difference in mechanical division making its content of plant 
food more readily available and so increasing its immediate effect upon the soil. 

Commercial vs. Natural Fertilizers — Tlie term ''commercial fertil- 
izers/' as used here, is intended to apply in its entirety only to those fertilizers 
made by grinding ujo various kinds of rock material that contain a high percentage 
of one or more of the essential elements of plant food. Those having an animal or 
vegetable origin (like tankage from slaughter-houses, the guanos, etc.) have a value, 
as heretofore explained, aside from the actual plant food contained. 

Owing to the multiplicity of causes that usually combine to produce a given 
effect in the agricultural world, it very commonly happens that first conclusions as 
to the cause of a given result cover but a small portion of the actual field. 

It was but natural, in the present case, that inasmuch as the percentage of 
soluble plant food in a soil decreases as the yield of crops decreases, the soil's con- 
tent of soluble plant food should at first have been considered the sole controlling 
factor in crop production. The logical procedure from such a basis would be an 
attempt to maintain or increase the productiveness of the soil by adding to it some 
material containing these essential elements in large quantity. Hence, there has 
grown up an immense industry, based on this theory, and more or less patronized 
by all the older sections of the country. Most of the Eastern States spend annually 
millions of dollars in an effort to increase the productiveness of their soils by this 
method. That some benefit is often derived fi-om such application there is no 
doubt, and in favorable seasons and under certain conditions the effect may even 
be very marked. The outcome, however, is very uncertain, owing to the fact that 
such an application, as a rule, affects only the one factor of fertility, namely, the sup- 
ply of mineral plant food. The moisture capacity, temperature, aeration, etc., are 
unaffected thereby. It follows that very often this application produces no increase 
in yield, and the total crop is sometimes worth no more than has been expended on 
commercial fertilizers for its production. 

The mineral plant food contained in these fertilizers is only partially soluble, 
and those who have been using them for years have discovered that by mixing them 
with manure and maintaining proper conditions for fermentation these materials 
will be rendered much more soluble. It is only reasonable to suppose that a similar 
action would produce a similar effect when applied to the same materials already 
in the soil. This we have seen to be the actual result as evidenced by experi- 
ment. 

Therefore, when we remember that the soil contains an abundance of these 



ECONOMY IN FERTILIZING 33 

necessary mineral elements, in one form or another, and that the conditions neces- 
sary for their rapid transformation into available form are also the conditions most 
favoring the other factors of fertility, we can only conclude that millions of dollars 
ai-e annually being wasted. In fact, money spent in this way is very often worse 
than wasted, because if the proper methods were pursued, the farmer would not 
only save that expense but enjoy a much larger yield of crop and an improved 
condition of soil for years to come. When a man buys such fertilizer he is spend- 
ing money for a commodity which he already possesses in greater abundance than 
he can ever hope to utilize. 

In sliort, it is poor business policy to huy what you can groio or develop yourself 
loitliout any expense, especially when hy so doing you are increasing your gross 
returns and permanently improving the condition of your lands in other ways. 

An extensive series of experiments with the various commercial fertilizers and 
barnyard manure conducted by the Michigan Agricultural College furnishes a good 
illustration.^ This report covers nine separate sets of experiments, conducted, one 
at the college and one in each of eight different counties. 

The crops used were corn, potatoes, beans, and sugar beets. A statement of 
the condition of the lands used is lacking in most of the cases, but those described 
are spoken of as having been severely and injuriously cropped. These results do 
not show much benefit to have been derived by the use of commercial fertilizers 
over no fertilizers at all, whereas, the increase in yields of plots fertilized with 
manure over those fertilized with commercial fertilizer was very marked, and in some 
cases almost double. This, too, in the face of the fact that in some cases, at least, 
the manure was applied in a coarse and unrotted condition, a procedure that would 
not, by any means, give the best possible results for that year. 

Many similar cases might be given, but this example is sufficient to show the 
immediate effects produced by manure, and it very frequently happens, in the appli- 
cation of manure, especially if it is not well rotted before being applied, that much 
greater benefits will be derived therefrom in the second and third years after appli- 
cation than in the first, and the effect may continue to be noticed for years. 

An idea of the immediate benefits that may be derived from the growing of legu- 
minous crops upon the land may be obtained from the following examples : 

Prof. J. F. Duggar reports an experiment in which the plowing under of a 
crop of cow-pea vines, after the peas had been harvested, gave an increase in yield 
of 250 per cent of wheat, 300 per cent of oats, and an increase in seed-cotton worth 

1 Bulletin 181, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. 



34 



SOIL FEETILITY 



(at Gfc.) 116.50 to $17.40 to 
the acre. In an experiment 
at the Wyoming Station, 
a tract of land of uniform 
condition and quality was 
divided, and one-half seeded 
to and allowed to remain in 
alfalfa for five years. The 
other half produced each 
year a crop of grain or pota- 
toes. At the end of the five 
years the whole plot was 
plowed, prejDared, and each 
half planted to the same 
crop. The increase in yield 
from the alfalfa land over 
that from the land that had 
been continuously cropped 
with cultivated crops, when 
figured at the local market 
prices, was equal to 116 per 
acre. This was figuring the 
crop from the two sections to 
be of equal quality, whereas, 
as a matter of fact, there 
was considerable difference 
in quality in favor of the 
alfalfa land. Where plants are enabled to go right along with a normal and vigorous 
development they can elaborate and store up in their seeds a larger amount of 
material, and plumper, heavier seed will result than where the plants are less 
thrifty, or where their development is cut off by a sudden shortage in moisture 
supply or other cause. In the above case oats from the alfalfa land weighed forty- 
three' pounds to the bushel.^ 




Fig. 11. Photograph showing beneficial effects upon the soil of growing 
leguminous crops, alfalfa being used in this experiment. The two 
larger samples of oats and wheat were grown upon alfalfa land, the 
two smaller ones upon land that had been continuously in some grain 
or cultivated crop. (Prof. B. C. BufiEum, Bulletin 44, Wyoming Ex- 
periment Station.) 



1 The legal weight of oats in the various States ranges between 26 pounds (Maryland) and 36 pounds (Oregon 
and Idaho). 



BENEFITS OF ARTIFTCTAL DRAIXAGE 35 

SOIL AMENDMENTS 

There may occur, either from improper treatment or from unfavorable natural 
conditions, soil conditions that may be greatly ameliorated by the application of 
certain mineral ingredients as corrective agents. As we have seen, lands that have 
become unproductive through too great an accumulation of carbonate salts (black 
alkali) may be greatly improved by an application of gypsum to change these salts 
into the sulphate (white alkali) form, which is less injurious. Close, heavy soils, 
or even lighter soils, under improper conditions may become sour. In such cases 
an application of lime will be found of great value. From twenty to seventy-five 
bushels may be applied, according to the severity of the case. A direct application 
of lime is sometimes injurious to certain crops, so that the safer plan will be to 
make any such ajiplications the fall before the land is to be put into crop. Lime 
may also perform a very valuable service in improving the texture of very fine heavy 
clays, by flocculating* the minute particles and thus rendering such soils more free 
and open for the entrance of air, the movement of moisture, and the penetration of 
roots. 

UNDERDRAINAGE 

WHAT TILE DRAINAGE DOES 

In what has gone before, many of the various soil amendments effected by proper 
drainage have been indicated in their connection. We may now summarize these 
benefits : 

It has been shown that air (the most important components of which are nitro- 
gen, oxygen, and a small proportion of carbon dioxide) must be present in the soil, 
being essential to the germination of seeds, to the growth of plants, to the activ- 
ities of the nitrifying bacteria, to the life of the parasites of the legumens, and to 
the chemical changes that set free mineral plant food in the soil. Free water 
excludes air, and the mischief, as has been seen, does not end with the simple 
cessation of the processes mentioned; for the denitrifying bacteria, deprived by 
excess of water of the oxygen they require, extract the needful element from the 
nitrates, so locking up or even setting free available nitrogen. 

Underdraiiiage Aerates the Soil — (a) By improving soil texture, or 
making possible such improvement, so as to admit air to spaces formerly occupied 
by freie water ; (b) by admitting plants to a deeper growth and providing livable 

1 This term refers to the gathering; together of the fine particles into groups or clusters, and has the effect of 
making the soil somewhat coarser. 



36 



UNDEEDRAINAGE 



conditions for earthworms and burrowing animals, all of which aid in ventilation ; 
(c) by permitting the flocculation of the clay subsoil and by lessening its tendency 
to contract upon itself ; (d) by the agency of the lines of tile themselves, into which 
soil air is forced by barometric high pressure or expansion due to rising temper- 
ature, and from which the plant roots derive fresh air when barometric low pressure 
or fall in temperature produces a partial vacuum in the soil. 

Effect on Soil Moisture — We have also observed that plants can not 
properly develop without an adequate supply of capillary moisture. In the under- 
drained field the reservoir of capillary water has been increased ; surface washing 
and leaching are both reduced, owing to the greater capacity of this reservoir to 

handle the rainfall ; a heavier rainfall 
may be received without making the 
surface soil too wet for proj^er cultiva- 
tion. By no means of least importance 
is the fact that the larger root develop- 
ment, that is stimulated by underdrain- 
age, enables the plant to absorb a given 
amount of water with a much less per- 
centage of moisture present in the soil. 
Effect on Soil Temperature 
— A warm soil, as we have learned, is 
also of the greatest importance. Un- 
derdrainage aids greatly in the produc- 
tion of a warmer condition of soil : (a) 
By removing the surplus moisture by 
percolation instead of evaporation ; (b) 
by decreasing the amount of surplus 
water in the soil, and thus enabling a 
given amount of heat to warm a larger 
amount of soil ; (c) by enabling the soil 
in the early spring to absorb a larger pro- 
portion of the warm rains (such rainfall 
containing a very large amount of latent 
heat); and (d) by improving the condi- 
FiG. 12. Photograph showing shallow rooting of corn in tious f or decomposition and various 

,n,dramedsoil. (Pvot. F.U.King: Physics of Agricul- chemical actloUS which produCC heat. 



. / 




wmmam 


\ I ' 


^syfflHi 


/"^i'^: 

M 


^PWc^K n^^Vf/^^J^^^^^VuB ^^^1 


m 


U WS^f^m^^mm ^fS ^^M^^^^^^^^ 






% 



PLANNING A DEAINAGE SYSTEM 37 

Effect on Alkali Lands — It has also been pointed out that an excess of 
salts (forming alkali lands) may be fatal to the growth of vegetation. Underdrain- 
age is the only practical, permanent remedy for such conditions. 

WHEN DRAINAGE IS BENEFICIAL 

The kind of lands that need underdraining are : (a) Flat lands with basins, or 
where surface drainage is very poor ; (b) comparatively flat lands, if of large area, 
that receive the surface drainage from higher ground ; (c) low-lying lands that are 
kept too wet by the natural underground seepage from the surrounding higher 
lands ; (d) flat lands, of considerable extent, having fair surface drainage but 
underlaid near the surface with thick beds of close, impervious clay ; (e) hillsides 
where there is an outcropping of water-bearing strata ; (f) lands that are subject to 
inundation, especially if of a somewhat fine texture, or if surface drainage is not 
first class ; (g) lands requiring excessive irrigation for special crops, as rice •- and 
(h) alkali lands. 

All lands in which the surface of the free water remains for any considerable 
length of time nearer the surface of the ground than three feet will be benefited 
by underdrainage. This may be determined by digging a hole with a spade or post 
auger, in Avhich the water will stand on a level with that in the surrounding soil. 

HOW TO DRAIN LAND 

Location of Ditches — The getting of a proper outlet is of course the first 
consideration in locating a tile drain. The outlet should be as free and unob- 
structed as possible ; any obstruction at the mouth will tend to fill up the drain 
farther back, for the water is carrying more or less sediment almost all the time, 
and if the flow is checked the sediment will be dei:)osited. It must be so located 
that there will be a continuous rise in the line of tile from this point to the source, 
else there will be a stoppage from the same cause. 

In draining level land that is not affected by seepage from higher lands the 
drain should in a general way follow the lower land. The exceptions occur where 
there is so little difference in altitude between the outlet and some of the lower 
portions of the field to be drained that the tile can not be placed far enough" below 
the surface in the lower portion to insure its remaining undisturbed ; or where, to 
reach some low point in the field at a given altitude, it becomes necessary to cut 
across and shorten the distance of the main line as much as possible. 

Wet sloughs or draws that have a fair slope of surface are usually wet because 



38 



UNDERDRAINAGE 



of seepage water from the higher ground on either side, and will be dry ground if 
this is cut off. So, in a wide draw, the best plan is to run a line of tile up either 
side to catch this water as it comes from the higher ground. Where the draw is 
narrow, one line up the center will usually answer every purpose. 

In draining any piece of land the conditions should be carefully studied, and the 
actual source of the water that is causing the trouble should be determined. Level 
lands that are wet because of seepage from higher ground will usually be more 
thoroughly dried by running one line of tile along the outcrop (several feet, it 
may be, above the main body of wot land), to catch this water as it comes out 
and prevent it getting into the other soil, than by a whole network of underdrains 
distributed through the level land to remove the water after it once gets in. The 
same principle applies to boggy hillsides and all lands made wet from the outcrop 
of a water-bearing stratum.' The mistake has very frequently been made, in 
attempting to drain such places, of putting the tile on the lower side to catch the 
water after it has passed through the other soil and has done more or less damage, 
instead of on the upper side, to catch it before it gets into the adjoining terri- 
tory. 

In determining the location of a system of tile drains on level land a level 
should be used, as the eye, measuring as it does by comparison with surrounding 
objects, can not be depended upon to tell which are the lowest and highest points. 

Depth of Drain — Except where the outlet is such as to necessitate a 
shallower ditch in order to maintain a proper fall, tile should always be placed four 
feet below the surface, and for the following reasons : 

(a) To obtain, as we have seen, a large reservoir for capillary water and a larger 
field for root development. 

(b) To enable a given line of tile to drain a larger area."'^ 

(c) To enable the excess of water to get away more quickly after a heavy rain. 
It is a mistaken idea that a shallow-laid tile will carry off the surplus water more 
quickly after a rain than a deeper one. Aside from the fact that the deeper-laid 
tile develops a larger reservoir, into which this surplus water can sink many 
hundred times as fast as it can get into any tile, the water will find its way through 
the soil to the deeper tile faster than to the shallower one, by reason of the steeper 
incline of the surface of the free water that may be developed. The water reaching 



1 This water-bearing stratum may be a layer of 
sand or gravel, or any other porous substance, with a 
layer of clay or other less porous substance beneath. 

2 The surface of the free water does not extend 
from the tile on a level, but owing to the friction and the 



attraction of the soil particles, which hinder its flow, it 
recedes on an incline so that a tile 4 feet in depth will 
draw the water from a distance at least one-third 
greater than one 3 feet in depth. 



CUTTING THE DITCH 39 

the tile mtiy also be forced into the deeper tile faster than into the shallower one, 
by reason of the greater pressure developed by the greater depth, or head of water. 

Establishing the Grade and Cutting the Ditch — In some sec- 
tions tiling consists largely in the drainage of sloughs or other lands that have a 
good fall all the Avay from source to outlet. In such districts a careful man of 
good judgment may do a good job without using a level ; especially if he have run- 
ning water for a guide. Such cases are, however, comparatively rare. The first step 
in establishing the grade is to determine the distance between the source and the 
outlet, and the difference in altitude between the outlet and the bottom of the pro- 
spective ditch at the source. The amount of this difference in altitude, divided by 
the number of hundred feet in length of ditch, will give the amount of fall for each 
hundred feet of ditch. The fall or grade should be made unifoi-m all the way, unless 
the conditions are such as to bring the steeper grade at the lower end of the drain. 

If the steeper grade be at the upper end of the line, sediment will be deposited 
in the lower portion of the drain, where the water runs less swiftly. If the topog- 
raphy o^ the area to be drained is such as to necessitate a steeper grade in the 
upper portion, then a silt basin should be constructed at the point where the 
change in grade is to be made, for the purpose of collecting the sediment brought 
down by the swift-running water and preventing its getting into the lower portion. 
This basin should extend two or three feet below the line of tile, and should be 
occasionally cleaned, as the sediment gathers. 

A fall of two inches for every one hundred feet should be secured where possible. 
In the draining of flat lands this will very often be impossible, and in such cases the 
greatest care must be taken to have the line of tile true to a line of uniform grade. 
It is sometimes necessary to lay drains on such lands Avith a fall of less than one-half 
inch to the hundred feet. In such cases a little inaccuracy in the workmanship, 
that would leave the bottom of the ditch a half-inch too high at any point, would 
leave no fall for a hundred feet, would reduce the capacity of the tile, and might in 
time cause a complete stoppage. For the laying of drains under these conditions 
an experienced and careful man or crew should be secured, and even then the work 
should be carefully supervised and inspected. The bottom of the ditch should be 
scraped to an exact grade, as bringing the tile to grade by filling under loose dirt in 
the low places will cause the tile to get out of shape through the settling of the loose 
dirt. Perhaps the best method of obtaining an accurate grade to the bottom of the 
ditch is by means of a line stretched above and attached to stakes set every 50 or 
100 feet along the line of ditch. Care must be taken that the line is parallel with 



40 



UNDERDRAINAGE 






the desired grade ; then, that the measuring rod be set 
accurately at the point indicating the depth of ditch 
below the line, and the ditch carefully measured all 
the way. 

The ditch should not be made wider than will just 
give room to work conveniently. Anything more is a 
waste of energy in removing the dirt and in tilling the 
ditch. The ditch should be narrowed down with the 
last spading so that at the bottom it is little wider than 
the tile. The bottom should be left rounded by the 
use of a cleaning scoop of convexity similar to that of 
the tile, to aid in keeping the tile in its proper place. 
A ditch unnecessarily wide at the bottom is liable to 
cause the tile to be misplaced in the filling. 

Laterals should enter the main at a higher level 
than the bottom of the main, unless the same sized 
tile is used for both and there is good fall. They 
may be brought in on top of the main, or at the side, 
above the bottom. Many tile makers now make con- 
nections for joining mains and laterals. If these are 
used the difference in altitude of lateral and main 
ditch should equal one-half the difference in diameter 
of tile used. For example, in joining a 3-iuch lateral 
to a 5-inch main, the bottom of lateral ditch should 
be one inch above bottom of main. 

Laying of Tile — The first thing to look to in 
this connection is the character of the tile. They 
should be smooth, strong, well shaped, and with good, 
well-fitting ends. A porous tile is not essential, as but little water enters the drain 
in this way. They should also be well and uniformly burned so as to be of uniform 
diameter and thickness of rim. If they are not uniform in this respect they may 
be sorted, putting the hard-burned ones together and at the upper end of the sys- 
tem, or using them for laterals, as they are smaller. The tile should be laid in 
perfect alignment, crowded up as tightly and made to fit as snugly as possible, to 
prevent sedjment entering at the joints. The laying is usually done by means of a 
tile hook on the end of a long pole. 




■i^itJ^M- 



FiG. 13. Photograph showing willow 
roots as takeu from a tile drain 
which they had completely clogged. 
(Edgerton.) 



COST OF TILE DRAINAGE 41 

Filling the Ditch — After the line of tile has been carefully inspected a 
few inches of dirt (clay, if possible) should be carefully filled in by hand to hold the 
tile in place, after which the remainder of the filling may be done with horses 
attached to a plow by means of a long doubletree, that will enable one horse to walk 
on either side of the ditch. 

Frequency of Drains — The distance apart that drains should be placed 
on level land will depend upon : (a) The character of the subsoil throngh which 
the water must pass in order to reach the tile, whether fine and close or open ; (b) 
the depth of the tile below the surface, the deeper drain drawing water from a greater 
distance than the shallower one ; (c) the frequency of overflow or of rains sufficiently 
heavy to produce percolation. It is seldom necessary to place drains nearer than 
100 feet, and in open, alluvial soils, 300 feet will usually suffice if the tile is laid four 
feet deep. On such lands a system may be put in in such a way that other laterals 
may be inserted later, if those first put in are found too far apart. This will avoid 
the possibility of needless expense in putting in more lines than are needed. 

Size of Tile — A tile should be sufficiently large to carry away the surplus 
water as fast as it can get to and into it. But any size greater than is necessary to 
do this is not only an unnecessary expense, but in many cases does not make so good 
a drain. The theory held by some that a large tile is less liable than a small one 
to become filled with sediment, is not correct. With a given amount of water pass- 
ing, the larger the tile the more readily will the sediment be deposited, because the 
water, being spread out over a greater surface, will be more shallow and run much 
mbre slowly. After this deposition has once begun the tendency is greatly increased. 
A 3-inch tile is the best size for laterals or any single lines of not more than half a 
mile in length and having a good fall. The fall is, of course, a large factor in 
determining the amount of water a tile will carry. Larger sizes should be used for 
the main drain, varying according to the amount drained into it. An 8-inch tile, 
with a fall of two or more inches for every 100 feet is sufficient to carry the surplus 
water from 80 acres of land. The carrying capacity of a tile varies according to the 
square of its diameter, except for the influence of friction which is proportionately 
greater in tlie smaller sizes. 

Keep Clear of Tree Roots — Any living trees should be avoided with 
lines of tile, or else the trees killed at once, lest they enter the tile and choke it up. 
Such trees as the willow, poplar, elm, and soft maple should never be left nearer 
than 75 feet. 

Cost of Tiling" — This is a question that can be determined for each case 



42 



KOADS AND ROAD MAKING 



only by the conditions affecting the same. The cost of digging the ditch will 
depend upon the average depth, the size of the tile to be laid, the character of the 
soil/ and by the amount of fall, making a greater or less amount of care necessary 
in getting the line of tile true and even. 

The cost of tile will also vary somewhat with different seasons and with the 
distance to a good tile factory. The writer has paid all the way from 19 to $13 
a thousand for 3-inch tile, and from 20 to 35 cents per rod for cutting a 4-foot 
ditch, laying the tile and filling in sufficient dirt to hold the tile securely in place. 
Most modern tile are made 13 inches in length and sixteen of them will lay one rod. 

ROADS AND ROAD MAKING 

The condition of the roadways of any locality, whether in city or country, 
largely determines the value of its property. A good road is essential, not only for 
pleasurable driving, but also for the marketing of the various products of the farm. 

In sections having very poor roads it frequently happens that the farmeis are 
unable to take advantage of the favorable changes in the market, owing to inability 
to haul their crops whenever they desire. 

The cost of moving farm products and supplies averages,^ on all our country 
roads, twenty-five cents per ton per mile, while in the "good-roads" districts the 
average is only about eight cents — a difference which in the aggregate amounts to 
more than the entire annual expenditures of the National Government. Whereas, 
one-tiuelfth of the farm value of the agricultural products of the United States 
would be sufficient to pay for hauling over good roads to shipping points, the cost 
of hauling over roads as they are is equal to one-quarter of the farm value. The 
destruction of perishable products for want of access to markets, the failure to 
reach markets when prices are at a maximum, and the enforced idleness of men 
and draft animals during seasons of impassable roads, constitute a "bad-road tax" 
upon the industry of the nation generally and upon that of the farmer directly. 

EARTH ROADS 

There are various systems of road construction, but for many years to come the 
greater portion of tlie roads in many parts of tha country will continue to be con- 
structed entirely of earth, owing to the difficulty of obtaining other material. The 



1 Whether friable and easy to dig, or hard aud 
stony; also whether or not there are sand patches that 
are liable to give trouble by caving. 



2 According to calculations made by the United 
States Department of Agriculture. 



EARTH ROAD CONSTRUCTION 43 

earth road, howevei", by the use of proper methods of construction and of mainte- 
nance afterward, may be made into a very passable road for all seasons of the year. 
As the construction should be tlio same whether an all-cartli road is the end sought, 
or whether it is to be finished l)y surfacing a part or all of it Avith stone or gravel, 
the construction of the ''dirt road *' will be first considered. 

Drainage — The first essential of a good road, regardless of the surfacing material used, is 
thorough surface and uuderdrainage, either natural or artificial. No stone surface will keep its 
place for-any length of time if it has a soft, spongy foundation. 

There should be surface drains where necessary, to carry off the surface water quickly and 
not allow it to stand and soak into the road. 

If there is not good natural uuderdrainage, tile should be laid. This should have a free outlet 
and as much fall as possible. 

In most cases one line under the center of the road will be more effective than two lines run 
on either side of the road, as the former gives a greater depth of drained soil where it is most 
needed. 

"Where possible, the tile should be laid four feet below the natural level of the ground, regard- 
less of the amount of grading that has been done. 

If the road passes through a springy place in such a way that the water comes in from both 
sides, it is usually best to put a line of tile on each side of the road 

If it is on a hillside and water comes out directly under the roadbed, these lines, or branches 
therefrom, should be carried under the road in such a manner as to catch this seepage. 

If the road passes such a place on the lower side, so that water tends to enter the roadbed only 
from one side, the tile should be placed on that side in such manner as to catch the water before it 
enters the road, instead of, as sometimes placed, on the lower side to catch it after it has passed 
through the road and done the mischief. 

A 3-inch tile with a good fall will be large enough to carry the water for a half-mile of road, 
except in very wet places or where the surface drainage is not good. Where it is necessary to put 
in longer lines larger sizes of tile will be necessary in the lower part of the course. 

Owing to the difficulty of securing outlets in many localities it may often be of mutual advan- 
tage for the road supervisors to join with the farmers and drain the road and adjacent farm lands in 
one system. ' 

Establishing the Grades — The steeper grades in the road should be lessened as much 
as maybe. The extent to which this should be carried, from an economical standpoint, will depend 
upon the quality of the roadbed. It will be of no special advantage to be able to haul very large 
loads over the main portion of the road if there are a few places over which these loads can not be 
drawn. 

Forming- the Roadbed — The roadbed should be made of medium width; 16 or 18 feet, 
with a strip of grass 3 feet wide on each side, making 22 to 24 feet between the surface drains, is 
usually satisfactory. 

The surface should be graded to a proper convexity by the use of a road machine, or by other 
means where a road machine can not be used. The surface should have sufficient slope to carry off 



44 ROADS AND EOAD MAKING 

the water quickly, but not enough to cause washing, or to cause vehicles to slide or cut deep ruts 
on the lower side by reason of the weight of the load being thrown largely on that side. A road of 
the width mentioned should be about 6 inches higher in the center than at the margins. 

The surface should be thoroughly harrowed to get it even and smooth and then well rolled with 
a heavy roller. This will put the surface in shape not only for convenient traveling but also for 
quick surface drainage, preventing the water from entering the road to soften it up. 

Surfacing" — In some localities where the soil is a gravelly loam, excellent roads may be 
maintained without the use of any other material. In most sections, however, they may be very 
greatly improved by surfacing with rock or gravel. 

MACADAM ROADS 

Where a road is required to support a large amount of heavy traffic the surfacing 
should be done on the macadam plan, which is as follows : 

Prepare the roadbed a year in advance, if possible, to allow it to become thoroughly settled. 

On each side of the portion of road that is to be surfaced, is left a shoulder of earth* of a height 
equal to the desired thickness of the made surface, to hold it in place. 

Over the roadbed is then spread a 3 or 4-inch layer of crushed rock of as nearly uniform size as 
possible. This layer is thoroughly rolled and then evenly covered with enough finely crushed rock 
to fill the interspaces between the larger rock, into which it is worked by thorough wetting and 
rolling. 

Then another layer is applied in like manner, making a very solid road surface, 8 or 9 inches 
thick. 

The layer of rock should be evenly spread, so there will be no tendency to bunches and hollows. 
The roller used should be heavy and of suflScient diameter so that it will not push the stone in front 
of it in the least. The rolling should begin at the outer edges and continue toward the center, and 
should be repeated until the surface is thoroughly hard and smooth. 

COMBINATION EARTH AND STONE ROAD 

Where there is less heavy traffic a much cheaper form of construction than the 
all-stone road, and one that gives very good satisfaction, is that which employs stone 
for one-half and -earth for the other. The one track is sufficient for the heavy 
loads, and may, in times when the dirt surface is soft, carry all the traffic. 

GRAVEL ROADS 

In many sections there are beds of gravel that may be used with very good 
results for the surfacing of roads where traffic is not heavy. The best results are 
obtained by screening the gravel and using the same methods in its application as 
in the construction of the stone road. 

Crushing the gravel will very much increase its value for this work, as it is usually 



BOOKS ON SOIL TREATMENT 45 

so rounded as not to bind nearly so well as the more angular forms. The thickness 
of the application may depend somewhat upon the amount of traffic. 

SANDY ROADS 

A sandy country sometimes presents a difficult problem in roadmaking, owing 
to the almost complete absence of binding properties in the sand when dry and to 
the readiness with which it parts with its moisture. 

Sand, when containing the necessary amount of moisture to bind it together, 
forms a very good road, and with this principle in mind it may be readily under- 
stood that the most practical treatment of such roads will be along the line of 
increasing their water-holding capacity. 

Clay, where it can be obtained, if applied to the surface iu proper quantity, 
will supply this deficiency in the best and most permanent form. Straw, sawdust, 
and any other form of vegetable matter will increase the moisture-holding capacity 
of such roads, but the rapid decay of these substances renders their frequent renewal 
necessary. 




Scl^:y^>^-<^^'^^-^ 



PUBLICATIONS ON TILLAGE AND GENERAL AGRICULTURE 

Agriculture and Chemistry. By F. H. Storer. Three volumes. Charles Scribner's 

Sons, N. Y $5.00 

An exhaustive treatise on the chemistry of soils, manures, and all farm products. Espe- 
cially adapted to the classroom, or to use by the student of agriculture who has already done 
considerable reading. 

Agriculture, Manual OP. By Emerson and Flint. Orange Judd Co., ^.Y .... 1.00 

Agriculture, Physics OF. By Franklin H. King. i^. IT. /uw^-, Madison, Wis. (1901) . 1.75 

A plain and comprehensive treatise on the origin, structure, and treatment of soils. Com- 
paratively free from technicalities, and well adapted to the use of the general reader. Contains 
chapters on the principles underlying the construction of farm buildings, and discusses in detail 
the operations of farm drainage, roadmaking, and the general application of mechanical prin- 
ciples to farm operations. 

Agriculture, Principles OF. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillari Co., lii. Y. (1902). . 1.25 

A book well adapted to first reading, covering, in concise and simple form, the various 
operations of farm management. 

Alfalfa and the Soil. Farmers' Bulletin 31. United States Department of Agriculture 

Confined to a consideration of the beneficial effects upon the soil produced by the growth 
of alfalfa. 



46 BOOKS ON SOIL TEEATMENT 

Alkali Lands. Farmers' Bulletin 88. United States Department of Agriculture . . 

Barnyard Manure. Farmers' Bulletin 21. United States Department of Agriculture . 

Dwells on the importance of conserving the natural nianurial products of the farm, and 
passes in review the various means of making economical use of this element of wealth. 

Chemistry, Elementary. By Ira J. Remsen Henry Holt & Co., ^.Y $0.80 

A textbook giving a clear presentation of the fundamentals of chemistry. 

Chemistry of Soils and Fertilizers. By Harry Snyder. Chemicnl P^iblishing Co., 

Easton, Pa 1.50 

Chemistry OP the Far.m. By R. Warrington. Orange Judd Co.. ^. Y. . ... 1.75 

a practical treatise in plain language on the composition of the various farm crops aud 
the modes in which the various elements of fertility are absorbed and converted into plant 
structure. 

Composition and Use of Fertilizers. By L. L. Van Slyke. Bulletin 55. Pennsyl- 
vania Dejmrtment of Agriculture. Harnsburg, Pa. (1899) . . 

A systematic discussion of the natural and artificial sources of fertility, with directions for 
home mixture of fertilizers, and specific formulas for aiiplication to various crops. 

Draining FOR Profit AND Health By George E. Waring Orange Judd Co.. '^.X 1.00 

An exhaustive treatise on sanitary and commercial drainage. 

Embanking Lands from River Floods, Principles and Practice of. By William 

Hewson. D. Van Nostrand CV, N Y . . 2.00 

Considers the subject as applied to the levees of the Mississippi River. 

Experi.ment Station Work. L Phosphates, Barnj^ard Manure, Potato Scab. Farmers' 

Bulletin 56. United States Department of Agriculture 

Same. II Lime. Ashes, Mixmg Fertilizers, etc. Farmers' Bulletin 65. United States 

Departtne?it of Agriculture . . . 

Same. IV. Loss of Fertility, Availability of Fertilizers. Farmers' Bulletin 78. United 

States Department of Agriculture . . . 

Same. V Humus. Farmers' Bulletin 78. United States Department of Agriculture . 

Same. VII Home-Mixing of Fertilizers. Farmers' Bulletin 84. United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture . . ... 

Same. XVI. Fertilizers for Market Garden Crops. Farmers' Bulletin 124. United States 

Department of Agriculture . . 

Experiment Station Work. XIX. Winter Orchard Irrigation. Farmers' Bulletin 144. 

United States Department of Agriculture 

Far.m Buildings, Practical Suggestions for. Farmers' Bulletin 126. United States 

Department of Agriculture 

Farm Drainage. By French. Orange Judd Co. . ^ . Y 1.00 

This work gives a thorough discussion of the principles of drainage, explaining how to lay 
out a drainage system, and the various steps necessary to the proper laying of tile in face of 
various difficulties. 

Farm Drainage. Farmers' Bulletin 40. United States Department (f Agriculture . 

A condensed discussion of the subject of drainage. 



BOOKS ON SOIL TREATMENT 47 

Fertility of the Land. By I. P Roberts. The Mncmillan Co . N. Y. (1899) . . . $ 1.25 

A valuable work for either the classroom or the man who drives the plow, covering not only 
the subjects of soils and soil treatment, but irrigation and drainage as well. A practical treatise 
free from techuicaUties difficult to understand. 

Fertilizers. By E. B. Voorhees. The Macmillan Co., '^ Y (1902) 1.00 

An extensive, detailed discus.sion of the natural fertility of soils and of the various artificial 
fertiUzers — their use in general and for specific crops. 

First Principles op Agriculture. By E. B. Voorhees. Silver, Burdette & Co., 

Boston 1.00 

This work treats of agriculture in a general way, but contains chapters on soils, their com- 
position and improvement, treated in a less exhaustive manner than in the treatise on fertilizers. 
A good book for first reading. 

Fokage Crops. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co , N. Y. . . .... 1 GO 

Geology, First Book in. By N S. Shaler. D. C. Heath cfe Cb., N Y 1 10 

Includes a discussion of the origin of soils. 

How Crops Feed. By S. W. Johnson. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.50 

A detailed discussion of the chemical composition of the soil and atmosphere and the part 
each plays in plant development. Especially adapted to the classi-oom, but is largely free from 
technicalities. 

How Crops Grow. By S. W. Johuson. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.50 

Goes thoroughly into the chemical processes of plant life. A valuable work for one who 
wishes to carry his studies to the very foundation. 

How THE Farm Pays. By Henderson and Crozier. Peter Henderson, N. Y. . . 2.00 

A ti'eatise by two practical farmers on the details of farm practice. Contains abundance 
of suggestion, but is general in scope. 

How TO Drain a House. By Geo. £. Waring. D. Van Nostrand Co., N. Y. . . . 1 25 

Irrigation and Drainage. By F. H. King. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. . . 1 50 

An exhaustive work designed to meet the needs of the classroom and of everyone having 
to drain or irrigate land Deals largely with the problems and practices of arid-land irriga- 
tion, treats practically the subject of farm drainage, and gives directions easily followed. 

Irrigation Ditches, How to Build Small. Farmers' Bulletin 158. United States 

Department of Agriculture .... ....... 

Irrigation Farming. By L ]M. Wilcox. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 2 00 

a discussion of the methods of irrigation and the benefits to be derived therefrom, together 
with notes on the principles of common law involved. 

Irrigation for the Farm. Garden, and Orchard. By Henry Stewart Orange Judd 

Co.. N. Y 1.00 

Irrigation in Connecticut and New Jersey. Bulletin 36, Office of Experiment Sta- 
tions. United States Department of Agriculture ... ..... .05 

Deals particularly with garden irrigation, showing how by irrigation the yields of vege- 
tabl,es may be largely increased, and their quality improved. 

Irrigation IN Field AND Garden. Farmers' Bulletin 138. United States Department of 

Agriculture 

Irrigation in Fruit Growing. Farmers' Bulletin IIG. United States Department of 

Agriculture 

Gives results of experiments in irrigating various kinds of fruits, discussing methods of 
applying water, amount to use. and other kindred topics. 



48 BOOKS ON SOIL TREATMENT 

Irrigation in Humid Climates. Farmers' Bulletin 46. United States Department of 

Agriculture - 

Irrigation on the Great Plains. Reprint 81. United States Department of Agri- 
culture 

Irrigation, Practical. Reprint 201. United States Department of Agriculture . . 

Irrigation, Rise and Future of. Reprint 181. United States Department of Agriculture. 

Land Draining. By Manley Miles. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y I 1.00 

Treats thoroughly the subject of drainage, discussing advantages, general principles, and 
methods to be followed in specific cases. 

Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring. Farmers' Bulletin 16. United States De- 
partment of Agriculture ■ 

Liming OP Soils. Farmers' Bulletin 77. United States Department of Agriculture . . 

Manures AND Manuring. By C. M. Aikman. D. Van Nostrand Co.,^.Y 2.00 

Manures: How to Make and Use. By Frank W. Sempers. W. A. Burpee, Phila- 
delphia .40 

Manures: The Philosophy op Manuring. By A. B. Griffiths. D. Van Nostrand Co., 

N. Y ^ 3.00 

Principles op Plant Culture. By E. S. Goflf, ^. 5. G^(#, Madison, Wis. . . . 1.10 

a discussion of fundamentals. 

Sewage Disposal on the Farm. Farmers' Bulletin 43. Uiited States Department of 

Agriculture 

a highly valuable discussion of sanitary measures necessary for the preservation of health 
on the farm. 

Soil, The. By F. H. King. The Macmillan Co., 'S.^. {\SQ5) 75 

About 300 pages of Professor King's larger work. Physics of Agriculture, are devoted to 
the topics which are the exclusive subject of this book. 

Soil OP THE Farm, The. By Scott and Morton. The Macmillan Co.,'N.Y 1.00 

Soils and Crops. By Morrow and Hunt. Orange Judd Co., 'N. Y 1.00 

Suggestions to Southern Farmers. Farmers' Bulletin 98. United Slates Department of 

Agriculture 

Ten Acres Enough. American Netcs Co., N. Y 

Shows how intensive cultivation may be made to yield large returns on a small tract of land. 

Tile Drainage. By W. I. Chamberlain. Supplied by Oraw^e J«f?d C'<?., N. Y 35 

Vegetable Mould AND Earthworms. By Charles Darwin. D. Appleton & Co.,l^.Y . . 1.50 

A highly instructive work, showing the extensive part the earthworm has played in soil 
development. 



Field Crops: Their Adaptations and Economic 
Relations, with Specific Cultural Directions 

By Joseph J. Edgerton, B. R. A. 
Instructor in Agricultural Physics, Iowa College of Agriculture 

In the great plan of nature everything has a phice. Each class of animate 
objects has some office that it can fill better than can be done by any other class. 
It is only when these various component parts find their proper places that the 
forces of nature will work together harmoniously for their develoj)ment. A plant, 
for example, the ancestors of which for countless generations have lived in arid or 
semi-arid regions, has become adapted to those climatic conditions and will not 
develop naturally in a moist climate. Accordingly, it does not follow, merely 
because a certain j^lant will produce valuable crops in one locality, that it is the 
best plant to grow under all conditions. What are valuable plants in some local- 
ities are weeds in others. 

One of the problems of the agriculturist, therefore, is to find those plants suited 
to his needs that are best adapted to his conditions of climate and soil. 

GRAIN CROPS 

CORN ' • • 

Corn is native to a tropical climate, and hence is favored by a warm soil and a 
warm atmosphere. By cultivation and selection its range of successful growth is 
being extended. Where it can be successfully grown it is well calculated to form 
the major part of the ration for all farm animals. The color of the grain has little 
to do with its feeding value. 

The composition of any variety of corn may be changed by selection and breed- 
ilig, thus developing breeds of corn adapted to specific uses. In the ISTorth, where 
seasons are short, early varieties should be planted, and farther south, for early 
feeding, they may comprise a portion of the crop. But where the season is of 

1 For notes on the selection of seed corn, see page V6. 

(49) 



50 GRAIX CROPS 

sufficient length to allow the lurger, later varieties to mature, they will usually 
produce much the greater yield. 

About one-half the food value of the average corn crop is contained in the 
fodder portion, hence, leaving the fodder to stand in the field is a great waste. 

The best point in a rotation at wliich to apply manure is just previous to the 
corn crop, as the application of manure just before a crop of small grain is liable to 
cause lodging. 

Culture — If laud has been fall-plowed, stir thoroughly, preferably with a disk-harrow, as 
early iu the spriug as the soil is in fit condition to conserve the moisture and warm up the seed- 
bed. This will give the weed seed in the seed-bed an opportunity to germinate, so that by a 
couple more diskings at proper intervals, the weeds may be very largely got out of the way before 
planting. Thus the after cultivation of the crop will be materially simplitied. If the land be not 
fall-plowed, the plowing should, as a rule, be done as early in the spring as practicable and the 
surface prepared as though the crop were to be planted at once, the weeds being killed as they 
appear, the same as iu the case of the fall plowing. 

Spring vs. Fall Plowing — As to which is the better, spring or fall plowing, much will 
depend upon conditions. Much may often be gained by plowing a piece of ground early in the 
fall, to turn under a crop of weeds before they ripen their seed. Sod, or manure that is somewhat 
coarse, has more time to decompose and get in proper condition for the coming crop if turned 
under iu the fall. Fall plowing, by exposing certain insects that have buried themselves in the 
soil for the winter, will often cause their destruction. On the other hand, early spring plowing, 
especially of heavy clay soils, properly treated, may better conserve the moisture of the deeper soil 
throughout the summer ; will make possible the absorption of a larger portion of a dashing rain ; 
in cases of continued, excessive rainfall will allow the excess of water to percolate away more 
readily; and will keep the soil more open and porous for the admission and circvdation of air. 

Planting should not be done too early; but it may be safely done earlier in a dry spring than 
a wet one, as the soil will warm up earlier. 

Corn, as has been observed, is native to a tropical climate, and if put in the ground before it 
is thoroughly warmed up is very apt to germinate slowly and poorly. The result will be a very 
uneven crop, many of the plants getting a weakly start and never recovering. The writer has 
seen early-planted corn overtaken and passed, before the season of cultivation was over, by corn 
planted two weeks later, on no better soil, but where the seed-bed had been put iu proper con- 
dition early in the spring. 

Plant in hills from 42 to 48 inches apart and from two to three grains in a hill, according as 
the land is rich or poor. On new clean ground drilling may give a larger yield, but unless hoeing 
is to be practiced it is usually better to plant so as to cultivate in both directions. 

Tillage — Where the soil has been put in proper condition and the weeds all killed before- 
hand, the harrow and weeder, used at the right time, will give all the cultivation necessary, except 
in wet seasons, until the corn gets a good start. The weeder may often be used to advantage to 
run crosswise after the first plowing. Used at the right time it may be just as effective as another 
plowing, and can be done a great deal faster. 



KAFIR-COE^', SOY BEAXS 51 

On groiiud which, for lack of vegetable matter or for any other reason, tends to contract and 
become solid, deep tillage, becoming shallower toward the last, should be practiced in order to 
keep the soil properly loosened up and aerated. On light, loose soils, shallow tillage throughout 
the season is preferable, as it conserves more moisture. 

The argument against root pruning bj^ deep cultivation, except where done in excess or late 
in the season, is not well founded, as a little root pruning usually does no harm and may often do 
great good. 

The cultivation of the corn crop should not cease because the corn has become too large to 
plow with the straddle-row cultivator. Very frequently conditions are such as to develop, after 
this point is reached, a crop of weeds which, if left, will absorb moisture and nutriment tha'l 
should go to making corn. Or, a rain may destroy the dust mulch and establish capillary connec- 
tion with the surface, causing loss of moisture by evaporation. This later cultivation is best 
accomplished by means of one horse attached to a garden cultivator that stirs only the surface, and 
that may be adjusted in width to conform to the width between the rows. For the conservation 
of moisture, level culture is better than ridging, as it exposes less surface for evaporation ; heavy 
ridging may in some cases help the corn to stand against a storm, though it is doubtful if this 
effect is often appreciable. 

KAFIR-CORN 

The grain from this crop is simihir in composition to dent corn, the percentage 
of fat being a little less and of starcli a little greater. As would be expected from 
the foregoing, its feeding value is hardly equal to that of corn, although experi- 
ments indicate that there is no great difference. Its virtue as a grain crop lies in 
its ability to thrive and produce a fair yield in regions so dry that corn can not be 
successfully grown. 

The fodder portion of this crop is somewhat superior in feeding value to corn 
fodder. 

Culture — Preparation of seed-bed and cultivation should be the same as for corn. 

SOY BEANS 

Soy beans are a highly nitrogenous crop' belonging to that group of plants 
which gather free nitrogen from the air by means of bacteria growing upon their 
roots (Fig. 14). The beans are a very valuable feed when gi-ound and used in con- 
junction with corn or other starchy food, having an equal value for this purpose 
with linseed and cotton-seed meal. In experiments made at the Kansas Experiment 
Station the addition of soy bean meal to corn or kafir-corn effected a saving of 30 
per cent in the amount of food necessary to produce 100 pounds of gain on hogs. 
Aside from producing a valuable crop soy beans are highly beneficial to the soil.* 

1 According to the Kansas Experiment Station. | increase of five bushels per acre over that grown on 
Bulletin 96, the yield of all crops is increased where adjoining land that had not been in beans, 
they follow soy beans, wheat showing in large fields an | 



52 



GRAIN CROPS 




Fig. 14. Photograph showing nodules formed by nitrogeu- 
flxing bacteria ou roots of soy beans grown the second 
season on the same soil. Both A and B, two-thirds 
natural size. (Prof. H. Garman, Bulletin 98, Kentucky 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



This crop also is adapted to a 
dry, hot climate. 

Culture — Preparation of soil should 
he the same as for the preceding crops, the 
necessity for thorough preparation and for 
;i warm seed-bed in which to plant being 
even more urgent in the case of soy beans. 
Furthermore, in order to get the best results 
in crop and the greatest enrichment of soil 
it is usually necessary, on ground where 
this crop has not been grown, to inoculate 
the soil with the root germs peculiar to this 
species of plant. This is effected by sow- 
ing with the seed dry soil from some field 
where soy beans have grown and developed 
tubercles. ' If grown for the beans north 
of latitude 41°, a sandy loam or soil rich 
in vegetable matter should be selected, as 
on a cold soil they may not mature in time 
to escape injury by frost. For this same 
reason seed should not be used that has 
been grown farther south. 

Bow in drills 26 to 30 inches apart and 
2 to 3 inches apart in the row. Give thor- 
ough cultivation, letting the weeds at no 
time get an advantage. 

Sugar beet machinery is very well 
adapted to the planting and cultivation of 
this crop, four rows being planted at once 
and two rows cultivated at once when 
desired. 



COW-PEAS 

The cow-pea is another tropical plant of the nitrogen-gathering family and, like 
the preceding, is rich in protein. While called a pea, it belongs properly to the 
bean family. It is a vigorous-growing, deep-rooted plant, especially adapted to 
the improvement of old and lifeless soils. ^ It is also a valuable addition to the 
grain ration for all classes of animals. This crop requires even longer to mature 



1 See Bulletins 96 and 100, Kansas Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, Manhattan, Kan.; Bulletin 22, Storrs 
Experiment Station, Storrs, Conn. 



3 Inoculation of the soil for this crop is also of great 
importance where the germs that grow upon it are lack- 
ing. Professor Duggar reports an increase of 600 per 
cent in yield of crop as the result of such inoculation. 



FIELD PEAS, WIXTER WHEAT 53 

tlijin the soy bean, and only the earlier varieties should ])e grown in the ISTorth for 
the production of seed. Some attempt is being made at present to develop by 
selection and breeding a variety better adapted to northern conditions. 

Culture — The same throughout as for soy beans, except to emphasize still more strongly 
the importance of a warm seed-bed. Any plant to develop properly must make a continuous 
growth. If held in check while young, they will seldom recover ; for this reason, with many of 
these tropical plants, time is gained by delay in the planting until the conditions are such as to 
produce rapid development. The cow-pea, as far north as Central Iowa, should never be planted 
before the 30th of June and then have the seed-bed well prepared beforehand. 

FIELD PEAS 

The field pea is another nitrogenous food of the family of legumens, but adapted 
to cooler climatic conditions. It is not injured by a light frost. 

Culture — May be (a) sown early with oats and the mixture harvested and threshed together, 
(b) sown broadcast by themselves on good clean ground, or (c) drilled in with a grain drill; or, 
they may be (d) drilled farther apart and cultivated the same as soy beans and cow-peas. 

If sown with oats, either the peas should be sown first and covered by plowing shallow with 
a stirring plow, then the oats sown and covered by thorough harrowing ; or, what is better, the 
seed-bed should be prepared by the use of the disk and harrow, the oats and peas being then 
mixed together and sown with a drill. Care is necessary, too, to get varieties of peas and oats 
that will ripen together. If sown broadcast alone, the ground should be fairly free from weeds. 
The peas may be covered by plowing as when sown with oats or put in with the drill. If sown in 
rows and cultivated, the preparation of soil and tillage of crop may be same as for soy beans, 
except that the peas should be planted early in the spring, so as to mature before the weather 
becomes too hot. 

WHEAT 

Wheat, by its long cultivation and development, is adapted to a great variety of 
climatic conditions. It may bo sown in the fall in some localities, in others only in 
the spring, and in some it may be sown in either fall or spring. It will survive a 
great amount of cold, but some varieties endure much more than others. What 
are spring varieties in cold climates may become winter varieties in warmer latitudes. 

Wheat has been raised primarily for human food, but what is good food for man 
is also good food for most other animals. Wheat, as such, is capable of forming 
the bulk of the grain ration of any of our domestic animals, and the by-products, 
especially bran, are a very valuable adjunct to the corn crib. 

Culture — Winter Wheat — The matter of first importance is the selection of the proper 
varieties. In the milder climates the basis of this selection should be the productiveness and mill- 

5 



54 



GEAIX CROPS 



ing qualities of the graiu.' In colder portions of the country, however, the matter of first impor- 
tance is to obtain a variety that will withstand the severity of the climate with a reasonable degree 
of success. The locality from which the seed is obtained, whether more or less severe in climate, 
will affect materially the hardiness of anj' variety, and a variety not entirely hardy in a given 
locality may be improved in that respect by continued growth and acclimatization. 

For the milder climates some of the best yielding varieties at the present time are : Poole, 
Mealy, Bed Russian, and Early Ripe, of the smooth varieties ; Nigger, CurreU's Prolific, Gipsy, and 
Egyptian, of the bearded varieties.^ 

Standard varieties for the South-Central West : Fultz, Extra Early Red, CurreU's Prolific, 
Hindostan, Jones's Winter Fife, American Bronze, and Missouri Blue Stem.'^ 

For the region from Southern Iowa north the only variety that can be unhesitatingly recom- 
mended at the present time is the Turkey Red. The Budapest is, so far as tried, standing the 
winters well, but has no advantages over the Turkey Red, being, to all appearances, the same wheat 
under a different name. Other varieties will come through most of the winters in go.od condition, 
but there is much more risk in sowing them. 

Ground that has been in corn or potatoes, and from which the crop can be removed in time for 
proper fall seeding, makes a very congenial place for this crop. The best conditions, however, 
are afforded by having the land previously occupied by some leguminous crop, as clover, cow-peas, 
or soy beans. If corn or potato ground is free from weeds and other trash it may be prepared by a 
thorough use of the disk and harrow without resort to the stirring jjlow. If the ground be such 
as requires plowing with the stirring plow, this should be done early, if possible, to allow the trash 
that is turned under to decompose and the plowed portion to settle. The seed-bed should be in 
fine condition, but the lower portion of it and the soil immediately below should be well compacted. 
A loose, open condition in the lower portion of the plowed section will not permit the plant to 
become so well established before the cold weather and it will be much more liable to winterkill. 
The use of the roller, subsurface packer, disk, or a combination of these is usually necessarj^ to 
put plowed land in proper condition for the seeding of winter wheat, 

Seeding in the milder climates should not be done too early, as there will be more danger of 
trouble from the fly. For the central portion of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Southern Iowa the 
best time is from the 10th to the 20th of September, 

Seeding should be done with a drill, and in the colder sections always with a press drill. •* 
Seeding should be at the rate of four to six pecks to the acre, depending upon the size of the 
berry, and the tendency of the variety to stool. The land should not be touched with any imple- 
ment after the drilling is done. The ridges left between the drill rows hold the snow for a 
protection during the winter and in the spring will crumble down and fill in around the plant 
when the freezing and thawing weather is tending to lift it out of the ground. 

Spring Wheat — This may follow to advantage the same kind of crops as the winter wheat, 



1 An effort is being made to discover if tliere is any 
difference between tlie various varieties in wittistanding 
tlie attacks of tlie fly. The Ohio Station, in Bulletin 118, 
reports as follows : So far as we have been able to learn 
no variety of wheat is fly-proof, but some sorts have the 
reputation of being less injured by the Hessian fly than 
others ; of these the following may be mentioned: Mealy, 
Mediterranean, Fulcaster, and Clawson. 



2 Bulletin 118, Ohio Experiment Station, Wooster, 
Ohio. 

3 Bulletin 21, Missouri Experiment Station, Colum- 
bia, Mo. 

4 A drill having a wheel following each runner to 
press the dirt firmly over the seed. 



MACARONI WHEAT, OATS 



;);:> 



but is a little more liable to lodge if the land is very rich. It will stand better, however, than 
oats. Spring wheat should not be grown where winter wheat can be grown successfully, as its 
later ripening renders it more subject to damage by storms, chinch bugs, and hot, blighting 
days at time of filling. Prepare the soil well and sow with the drill ' as early in the spring as the 
ground is in proper condition for working. 



MACARONI WHEAT 

Macaroni wheat is a variety of wheat comparatively new to this country, but 
grown in large quantities in the east and south of Russia. Its principal use at 
present is for the manufacture of macaroni. Tliere is a growing demand for this 
variety of wheat in this country, and it is especially adapted to the hot and semi- 
arid regions of the West and Southwest, where most cultivated grain crops are 
un.certain. It is also adapted, by reason of its long residence on soils of that 
character, to growing on soils that are somewhat alkaline. So far as it has been 
groAvn in this country it gives promise of being proof against depredations of smut 
and rust. In the northern sections it is a spring wheat, but in the South may be 
grown as a winter wheat. Reports from Kansas indicate that this grain at present 
is not sufficiently hardy for fall seeding so far north, but it can undoubtedly be 
made so by selection. Fall seeding, where it can be practiced, will give the best 
results. Macaroni wheat is a vigorous grower and where seeded in the fall will 
make an abundance of winter pasture. 

Culture — The same as for other wheats, using about the same amount of seed. The grain 
should be thoroughly ripe before being harvested, and harvesting should not be done in damp or 
cloud}' weather if it can be avoided. 

OATS 

Oats also are adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions as well as uses. 
Through selection and breeding there have been established varieties having a wide 
range in time of ripening. The later ripening varieties, where the conditions are 
favorable for their growth, will give a larger yield of grain than the earlier varieties, 
owing to the greater length of time allowed for the gathering and elaboration of 
food. On the other hand, for many conditions the early varieties are the more 
satisfactory. They do not grow so rank, hence are better adapted to rich soils. 
They are much less liable to be caught by storms or by hot days at filling time — 
circumstances that will produce a poor-quality, light-weight grain. Xot growing 



1 All spring crops of small grain, as well as those 
sown in the fall, should be sown witli the drill. A (iftn 
less seed will produce as good a stand as in broadcast 
seeding and the seeds are all down where they are not 



liable to be killed, or at least stunted, by hot, dry days 
soon after germination. Moreover, plants get a good, 
deep, vigorous hold that enables them to better w'<'h- 
stand droughts. 



56 



GKAIN CEOPS 



L^ 






i 



so rank and ripening earlier, they are a far better nurse crop with which to start 
clover or grass crops than the later varieties. 

Culture — The same as for spring wheat, except that oats will not stand up on quite so rich 
land, not being quite so stiff in the straw. 

Remedy for Lodging — Lodging is due, except in cases of severe storm or extreme condi- 
tions, to a lack of woody fiber in the stem, caused by undue shading by a heavy growth of foliage. 
By pasturing with a sufficient amount of stock to eat off the excessive 
growth before the seed stalks are started, or by mowing the crop just 
as they are starting, the tendency to lodge may be very materially less- 
ened, 

BARLEY 

Barley is an excellent food, when ground, for all classes 
of animals, but is too hard to be properly masticated when 
fed whole. It is not quite so well relished as corn, and ex- 
periments indicate that its feeding value is a little less. 
Barley is well adapted to cool climates and to rich lands. 
Being shorter in the straw than oats or wheat it is less liable 
to lodge than either of them, and this, combined with its 
early ripening, makes it one of the best nurse crops we have. 
Considerable objection is sometimes offered to the raising of 
this crop on account of the beards; but with modern machin- 
ery and methods of handling this objection should have but 
little weight. Varieties of beardless barley are being devel- 
oped, some of which give much promise for the future. The 
Success is one of the best of these, but as yet they are far 
outyielded by the six-rowed, bearded variety known as the 
Mandscheuri. 

Culture — Prepare the soil the same as for oats (except that richer 
ground may be used) and sow early with the drill. Barley will stand 
more freezing than oats, hence may be sown earlier. It is important to 
sow all these small grains that are adapted to cooler latitudes as early 
as conditions will permit. Their nature is to ripen about a certain time of 
the year, regardless of the time they were sown; so that a given variety, 
if sown early, has a longer time in which to gather plant food than if 
sown late. For this reason the early-sown grain is better filled and weighs 
more to the bushel. 
Fig. 15. Photograph show- Kilt< 

Reld vi'ifentcorn' Rye is morc rcsistaut to cold and severe climatic changes 

Z'rS'iro^lT'"^^ than winter wheat, hence, may be grown farther north. It 



EMMER 



57 



is adapted also to places where for one reason or another 
the soil can not be put in proper condition for wheat. 
Being a more rugged plant and a coarser feeder it will 
get hold where the wheat plant will not. This crop, 
when ground, makes a valuable food for all kinds of 
stock, there being no other feed that will make heavier 
fleeces on lambs. 

Culture — While it is true, as stated above, that barley will 
make a fair crop under conditions where wheat would fail, yet 
there is no other crop that will respond more freely than rye to 
good treatment. To get the best results the ground should be 
as carefully prepared as for wheat and the rye drilled in in the 

same manner It may be put in later than the wheat, but if put in eai'ly will make an abundance 

of fall and early spring pasture and a good crop of grain besides. 




Fig. 10. Photograjjli showing a 
sood I ype of tip end, Reid Yel- 
low Dent corn. (From an ear 
furnished by L. C. Brown.) 



EMMER ' 

Emmer is a cereal new to this country, but one that givps promise of great value 
to particular sections. It comes from Europe, Eussia, from which country we get 
our best seed, raising the largest .amount.^ The great value of emmer lies in its 
drought-resisting qualities and its consequent adaptation to the regions of scanty 
and uncertain rainfall. It will thrive, however, under a very wide range of climatic 
conditions and is worth a trial in any section of the country. It is raised both as a 
winter and a spring crop. Emmer is closely related to the wheats, although the 
chatf adheres to the grain when threshed. It is similar in composition to oats, 
containing a little less fat and a little more protein. For the year 1900, at the 
Iowa Experiment Station, it gave a yield per acre of 
2,200 pounds of grain, weighing 35 pounds to the struck 
bushel. The North Dakota Experiment Station reports 
a yield for 1900 of G3 bushels per acre. In a feeding 
experiment with sheep, at the Iowa station, in which 
were compared the feeding value of emmer, soy beans, 
corn, and gluten-feed and corn, all other conditions 
being the same, the largest gains were made by the lot 
fed on emmer. The straw is shorter and stiffer than 
that of wheat, making it much less liable to lodge ; for 




1 This grain is frequently improperly called speltz. 

2 See Farmers' Bulletin 139, United States Department of Agriculture. 



Fig. 17. Photograph showing a 
good type of butt end, Reid 
Yellow Dent corn. (From an 
ear furnished by L. C. Brown. 



58 GRAIN AND ROOT CROPS 

this reason it should prove an excellent nurse croji. Emmer seems thus far to be 
more resistant to the attacks of rust than the more common cereals of this country. 
Not the least of its prospective value lies in the improvement that may be made in 
our wheats by crossing them with it.^ 

Culture — Same as for wheat, except that the earliuess of seeding should be emphasized, 
and that tlic rate of seeding should be about the same as for oats. 

FLAX 

Flax is a grain rich in fat and protein, which supplies the linseed oil of com- 
merce on the one hand, and the oil cake, or oil meal for stock feeding on the other. 

Culture — Flax is a strong-feeding plant adapted to the taming of freshly-broken wild land, 
as it can be made to produce a fair crop where the sod is too resistant to be properly worked up 
for any other crop. Such lands, however, should be put in as good condition as possible, as the 
extra work will be more than repaid by the increased yield. A good heavy roller is a necessary 
part of the equipment for properly putting in flax on freshly-broken wild land. If a soil that has 
been under cultivation is used, it should be rich in vegetable matter and should be prepared the 
same as for corn. 

The flax plant is very tender and seed should not be sown until all danger of frost is past. A 
press drill should be used in the seeding. 

Flax-sick Soil — One of the necessities for a rotation of crops lies in the fact that if a given 
species of plant is grown continuously on the same ground the various parasitic diseases that prey 
upon it have an opportunity to multiply until they may destroy the crop. This is especially true 
of flax, and for this reason it should not be grown two years in succession on the same ground. It 
is the continued cropping that gives rise to what is known as "flax-sick soil." 

BUCKWHEAT 

Buckwheat, while used primarily for human food, is also a valuable food for 
stock, experiments indicating that it has a feeding value almost equal to that of 
wheat. 

Culture — One of the chief values of this crop lies in its adaptability to the production of a 
crop late in the season on lands that have been too wet in the early part of the season for the start- 
ing of other crops. It may be sown as late as the middle of July in sections as far north as the 
center of Iowa. A good seed-bed should be prepared and the seed sown broadcast and well covered 
or put in with the drill. 

ROOT CROPS 

One of the urgent needs of winter feeding in sections of the country where 
animals must be fed for a long time on dry feed is for some product that will furnish 

1 See Bulletin 63, Iowa Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. 



BEETS 



59 



the laxative that is obtained in summer from tlie grass. Too lax a condition in 
cold weather is not desirable, but a certain degree of it is necessary in order for the 
various food materials to bo properly assimilated and carried 
through the body. This is especially true of animals from 
which it is desired to obtain a large flow of milk. 

There is probably no other form of succulent food that 
will so largely aid in the translocation of food materials from 
tlie digestive tract to their proper destination as tiie unor- 
ganized compounds found in the various root crops. Their 
value for use as a regulator of the system can hardly be over- 
estimated. 

BEETS 

Of these several varieties are used for field crops. The 
sugar beet, grown extensively for the manufacture of sugar, 
is also valuable for stock food, being better relished by hogs 
than the mangel varieties. Where used for the manufacture 
of sugar the pulp from which the juice has been expressed is 
a valuable food. 

The varieties of mangel are better adapted, however, for 
exclusive stock feeding as they yield more heavily, are much 
more easily harvested, carry less dirt with them to the cellar, 
are better relished by sheep and cattle, and are about as good 
for hogs. 

Of the mangel varieties the Mammoth Long Red is one of 
the best for light soils. It is usually the heaviest yielder and 
is less liable to be damaged if caught in a little freeze before 
being harvested, as the heavier growth of leaves affords 
greater protection. In some sections the Golden Tankard 
makes a better keeper, but this is not universally true. 

Culture — When growing for feed select a piece of soil rich in 
vegetable matter or enrich well with well-rotted manure. This should 
be free from trash, corn stalks, etc., that will interfere with hoeing, or 
cause the small beets to be covered up when cultivating. 

Plow thoroughly in the fall or early spring. Develop a seed-bed 
earlv and kill all the weeds as nearly as possible before planting the crop. 
A fine seed-bed is necessary, but it must not be too loose. If loose in 
the subsurface, the moisture will not be drawn up well around the seed 




■•»«^t.^-'-* 






Fig. 18. Photograph show- 
ing ear with grain too 
irregular. (James Atkin- 
son, Iowa State College 
of Agriculture.) 



60 ROOT CROPS 

for their germination, and if there is too much loose earth on the immediate surface, a dashing 
rain may bury and destroy the young plants soon after they come up. 

The seed may be sown with any garden drill, or in large areas with horse drills made especially 
for that purpose. If the horse drill is used, care must be taken not to get the beets planted too 
deep, as a uniform stand is highly important. Use plenty of seed, as they must be thinned in any 
case. From 5 to 15 pounds of seed to the acre will be required, according to the width between 
the rows and the care used in planting. Much more seed should be used with the horse than with 
the hand drill, as the former is not so accurate in its work and more of the seed may be buried too 
deeply to come up. 

Give thorough cultivation. If done at the right time and if the land has been well cleaned of 
weeds, this may be done mostly with the horse, no hand work in many cases being needed, except 
a hoeing with a wheel-hoe when beets first come up, and thinning after they get well started. The 
thinning may be done, first, with the hoe — cutting through the row, leaving bunches of two and 
three in a place — and afterward by going over them and hand-thinning to one in a place, having 
one plant every 10 inches when through. 

Beets should not be harvested in the fall until there is danger of freezing weather, as it is 
more difficult to keep them if harvested before the warm days are past. A light freeze will do 
them no harm, if they remain in the ground until thawed out. When pulled, the tops should be 
cleanly removed and the dirt jarred off, as both affect their keeping. They should be stored in a 
cool place where the temperature will be as uniform as possible and where there is fair ventilation. 

Culture for Sugar — Where the sugar beet is grown for sugar, care should be taken, in the 
first place, to obtain seed of beets that have been developed especially for that purpose. Secondly, 
the soil must not be overrich, especially in fresh manure, as too large and rough a growth is less 
productive of sugar. A smooth, clean beet of medium size gives the best quality of juice. Sugar 
beets will also bear being left closer together in the row than where more size is desired, 6 to 8 
inches being a good width on good soils. 

CARROTS 

These are grown more especially for horses. They start more delicately than 
beets, are more difficult to harvest and do not yield so well, but horses are very 
fond of them, whereas they are not so fond of beets. For this purpose a large 
growing variety that will yield well should be selected. The Large White Vosges 
is perhaps the best variety. The Long Yelloiv Orange is a good yielder, but grows 
so long that it is more difficult to harvest. 

Culture — The same as for beets except that they may be left nearer together in the row, 
6 inches apart being a good distance. 

TURiaPS 

A valuable crop for early winter feeding, but will not keep so well as beets. 
Sheep are especially fond of them, and in the milder climates they may be fed off 
the ground without harvesting. 



RUTABAGAS, KOHLRABI, POTATOES 61 

Culture — The best soil for turnips is one rich in vegetable matter. Prepare and sow in 
ilrills, thinning and cultivating the same as for beets. Or, if the ground is free from weeds, they 
may be sown broadcast. For winter feeding they should not be sown before the latter part of 
June for Central Iowa. Turnips will stand considerable freezing weather, before harvesting, 
without damage. They are better, however, not to be harvested while in a frozen condition. 
If they are caught l)y a freeze, leave in the ground until the frost is again ou* of them. 

RUTABAGAS OK SWEDISH TURNIPS 

Tlie rutabaga is a hard-fleshed turnip belonging to the same family as cabbage. 
It is a much better keeper than the common turnip and in cool climates is a heavy 
yielder and a very valuable crop ; but it is not adapted to the dry, hot summers of 
Iowa and localities farther south and southwest, developing practically no bulb in 
these sections. 

Culture — The same as for beets. 

KOHLRABI 

The kohlrabi is another plant closely related to cabbage, but differing from the 
one just considered in that it produces the bulb entirely above ground. It is not 
properly a root crop, but is treated here because of its similar economic relation in 
the problem of stock food supply. The kohlrabi is a good keeper, is easy to raise 
a,nd easy to harvest, starting much more quickly than beets or carrots. It is adapted 
to a much wider range of climatic conditions than the rutabaga ; growing in warm 
as well as cool climates and being resistant to drought. 

Culture — The same as for beets. 

POTATOES 

, Culture — A good clover sod, well plowed and prepared, makes an excellent bed for the 
potato. The potato likes an abundance of vegetable matter, but not much of this should be in the 
form of freshly applied stable manure, especially if the crop is intended for market, as it tends 
to produce a scabby tuber. Too rich a soil is apt to cause a very rank growth of vine and few 
potatoes. 

For an early crop, potatoes may be planted as soon as the frost is out of the ground and the 
soil in workable condition. For a winter crop they should be planted late enough so that the 
tubers will not be ready to set until the fall rains commence. They may be tended very largely 
with the harrow if the soil is kept sufficiently loose for the harrow to be effective. A little drag- 
ging, pruning, and burying of the tops will do them no harm. Use level culture until the tubers 
set on, when they should be hilled enough to protect the tubers from injury by the sun. Experi- 
ments indicate that ridging does not increase the yield. 



62 



ROOT AND SOILmCx CROPS 



ARTICHOKES 

Artichokes are a valuable food for maintaining hogs in a healthy condition 
during the fall, when they are on a heavy feed of corn. They are very easily raised 
and the hogs do their own harvesting. 

Culture — Plant moderately early on a piece of ground where it will be convenient to allow 
the hogs to run in the fall. If the soil is not already rich in vegetable matter, manure well. Plant 
and cultivate the same as potatoes. The tops, early in the season, will get large enough to shade 
the ground and keep down the weeds. 

The tubers are usually attached to the plant by much longer stems 
than are potatoes, which makes them diflBcult to harvest, but by allowing 
the hogs to do the harvesting this objection is removed. By not allowing 
the hogs to dig them too close they will re-seed themselves and produce a 
crop the following year, without the necessity of any planting or cultivation. 

PUMPKINS 

The pumjjkin has a similar economic place in the feed yard 
to that of the root crops. It is a valuable fall and early winter 
feed for cattle, sheep, and swine, and is adapted to a very wide 
range of climatic conditions. 

Culture — Pumpkins maybe grown with the corn crop, producing, 
where the stand is not perfect or where the corn docs not grow large, a 
considerable amount of feed without materially affecting the.yield of corn. 
If grown as a separate crop, the ground should be prepared the same as for 
corn. Plant about the same time, in hills 8 feet apart each waj^ putting 
3 to 4 seeds in a hill. When the plants are well started, thin to one plant 
in a hill. Give thorough cultivation. Harvest before freezing weather 
and store in a cool, dry place. 

SOILING CROPS 

In those portions of the country that are subject, during 
the summer, to a period of two or more weeks' drought, in 
which the grasses of the pastures cease to grow, there should 
be planted each spring some crop of quick growtli that may be 
cut off and fed during this period. Such a practice not only 
maintains a steady growth of the animals, but by saving the 
Fig. 19. Photograph pastures renders them more productive. If pastures are eaten 
perins."( James Atkin- vcry closc, they may become so thoroughly burned out at such 
fege o^fT|ricutturp^°^" times as to kdl much of the gras§, making it slow in starting 




SORGHUM, KAFIR-CORN 63 

up again and much less productive for a long time afterward. This killing out, mak- 
ing thin patches, gives the weeds their opportunity and thus makes weedy pastures. 
A given amount of land may be made to carry a much larger amount of stock 
by being handled in this way. In fact, a much larger amount of feed can be 
produced per acre in this way in any locality than can be obtained by pasturing, so 
that as lands become higher in price resort will have to be made more and more to 
this method of summer feeding. Some of the crops best adapted for this use are ■ 

SORGHUM 

Sorghum is one of the best crops for soiling purposes. It grows very rapidly, is 
ready early, yields abundantly, and above all is very much relished by all stock, 
owing to Us sweet, pleasant taste. It is also well adapted to the semi-arid regions, 
being exceedingly resistant to both drought and heat. 

Culture — Prepare the soil the same as for corn and sow with a grain drill at the rate of 
100 pounds of seed per aci'e. Sorghum should not be sown until the ground is thoroughly warm, 
or it will be slow in starting and the weeds will get a start For Central Iowa it should not be 
sown before the 1st of June, and will make a good, heavy crop when sown as late as the 10th 
of July. 

In humid or semi-humid climates, when sown in this way on laud that has been well prepared, 
no cultivation is needed. In drier climates better results may be obtained by drilling in rows 
26 to 30 inches apart and giving thorough cultivation to conserve the moisture. 

SoRGiiuM Poisoning — In the drier regions west of the Missouri River there have been 
occasional deaths from what appeared to be a virulent poison, when cattle have been grazed on 
this crop. This has prejudiced a large number of farmers against its use. So far as the writer 
knows no trouble of this kind is ever experienced where sorghum is cut and fed green or as dry 
fodder. 

There is a prevalent belief that it is only the second growth of sorghum that causes this 
trouble, but this is not correct. Most of the reported cases have occurred in pasturing the second 
growth, for the reason that the first growth is seldom pastured, being cut for fodder instead. 

It is not yet known what is the cause of these deaths, but present evidence indicates that they 
are not due to any poison in or on the plant itself. Like the corn stalk disease, it is yet to be 
worked out. 

KAFIR-CORN 

Kafir-corn also is an excellent plant for soiling and for some conditions may be 
preferable to sorghum. It is not as large a yielder as sorghum and usually not so 
well relished by stock, although a few reports indicate that there are exceptions to 
this rule. Being in a high degree drought-resistant, it is well suited to semi-arid 
regions. 

Culture — The same as for sorghum. 



64 SOILING CROPS 

CORN 

Corn is not so well adapted for the use under consideration in the semi-arid 
climates as the two crops just considei'ed, but it is equal or superior to the kafir- 
corn for humid and semi-humid climates, as it is just as well relished and, where 
moisture is plentiful, will produce a larger yield. 

Culture — Corn may be sown broadcast, drilled the same as the crops just considered, or 
planted thickly in drills with a corn planter having a drill attachment. In the latter case it can 
be given cultivation and will develop more grain. It should be planted thick enough so that the 
stalks will be small and soft. 

RYE 

The chief value of this crop for soiling purposes lies in the fact that it will fur- 
nish a supply of food earlier in the season than can be obtained from any of the 
spring-sown crops. 

Culture — The same as for a crop of grain except that 6 pecks of seed per acre should be 
used. 

PEAS - AND - OATS 

Peas-and-oats is one of the earliest spring crops that can be sown for soiling, 
being ready to follow immediately after the rye. This crop may be grown as a win- 
ter crop in the South. 

Culture — Sow very early on rich soil, mix the oats and peas half-and-half, and seed with 
the drill at the rate of 3 bushels per acre. 

RAPE 

Rape is especially well liked by sheep and swine, yields heavily, is very succu- 
lent and will continue to grow until freezing weather. Its great succulence gives 
it a tendency to produce bloat if eaten ravenously, especially while wet. It grows 
best in a cool, moist climate, but is quite resistant to drought. 

Culture — If land is not rich, manure well and prepare thoroughly as for a root crop. Drill 
with a grain drill, stopping two out of every three holes, or with a horse beet drill. Seed at the 
rate of 5 pounds of seed per acre. Give thorough cultivation. This crop starts quickly and grows 
rapidly and will soon shade the ground and keep down weeds. 

Another method of growing this crop for a supplementary feed is to seed with the spring vari- 
eties of small grain. In such cases seeding should not take place until the grain is well up, lest 
the rape get the start of the grain. As so little seed is required, this entails very little expense, 
and if the season is favorable a large amount of feed will be produced after the grain is cut oflE. 

Still another plan that frequently meets with success is to sow in corn at the last cultivation. 
The amount of feed that the rape will make in such cases will depend largely upon the condition 
of the corn growth. If the corn is of good stand and rank in growth, the rape can make but little 
feed. 



SOY BEANS, COW-PEAS, TEOSINTE 



65 



SOY BEANS 

The soybean is valuable for soiling, especially for use in conjunction with sorghum 
or some of the more carbonaceous foods. It is especially adapted to use on lands 
that need building up, as it will thrive better on this soil than 
many of the other crops, and at the same time will improve the 
soil. It is also well adapted to regions of light rainfall. 

Culture — The same as for the seed crop except that a little heavier yield 
may be obtained by using more seed to the acre. 






COW-PEAS 

The cow-pea holds a similar economic place among soiling crops 
as the one just discussed. In many parts of the country it pro- 
duces a much larger quantity of feed and in such localities is pref- 
erable to the former on that account. It is also well adapted to 
growing on and improving thin lands. 

Culture — More seed to the acre should be used than for a seed crop ; 
otherwise the culture may be the same ; or, on good clean ground cow-peas 
may be sown with a grain drill and not cultivated. The same observation 
should be made in regard to securing the earlier, quick-growing varieties for 
the northern sections, and also to securing seed grown as far north as possible. 

TEOSINTE 

Teosinte is a new crop for the North, but, so far as tried, does 
not give promise of possessing any advantages over those pre- 
viously mentioned for this region. It gives very large yields 
under favorable conditions in the South and is reported as mak- 
ing excellent forage. It is a native of Mexico, and is thought by 
some botanists to be the original of our Indian corn. 

Culture — Prepare the soil the same as for corn and plant in hills the 
same distance apart each way; place two seeds in a hill, and cultivate the 
same as for corn. 

ANNUALS FOR DRY FORAGE 

It not infrequently happens in many sections of the country fig. 20. Photograph 

that by reason of winterkilling on present mowing lands, or of open"- space *^be° 

failure .to secure a proper stand on those intended as such, there g^Ht [lowa state 

is a temporary shortage in the supply of dry roughage for winter tureT^ of A^ncui- 



>•> 5^ <:> - 






66 ANNUALS FOK DEY FORAGE 

use. There are a number of annuals well adapted, when properly grown and cared 
for, to supplying such deficiencies. On some of the higher-priced lands it may 
even be economy to grow some of these crops each year and maintain a smaller 
amount of mowing land, as many of these will return a much larger yield per 
acre than can be obtained from the permanent meadows. Furthermore, by the 
use of some of these crops, good winter feed may be obtaiued in regions where, for 
lack of rain, the native grasses do not get large enough to mow and where our 
common perennial grasses will not survive the summer's drought and heat. The 
Experiment Station at Higlimore, in the buffalo-grass region of South Dakota, 
reports for 1901 a yield of three tons of dry fodder per acre in the case of yellow 
Milo Maize and 2.9 tons per acre of Amber Cane. 

CORN 

The first thing that should be considered in this connection in a region where 
corn is grown is the utilization of the fodder portion of the corn crop. 

The corn should be cut when it is sufficiently matured, so that it will not shrivel up and 
become loose in drying out. The grains on a majority of the ears should be well dented. Whether 
or not this fodder maintains the value it has when first cut, will depend upon the manner in which 
it is put up. This is a very important matter, even if the corn is only to stand in shock until it 
is thoroughly cured, as an improperly built shock may become very much damaged within a few 
days after cutting. 

Whether the corn is cut by a machine and bound into bundles or set up loose, it is important 
that each bunch be set up snugly at bottom and top, and that it be set up straight, not allowed to 
lean to the one side or the other. No more time is required to set it up the right way than the 
wrong. 

It should be cut close to the ground, not only to save the feed and leave less stubble in the 
way. but to have the ears kept up off the ground in better shape. This is especially important if 
the corn is to stand and be fed from the shock during the winter. 

The manner of tying the shock is also of the greatest importance. The band should be placed 
just as near the top as possible and yet enclose all but a few of the tops. This will not only save 
twine, but it will be found that the shock will stand much better than if placed lower down. 
The band (ordinary binding twine may be used) should be drawn tight, both to exclude the rain 
from the shock and to keep it from getting out of shape. In order to secure the proper tightness 
of the band the shock must first be drawn up with a rope. This should be done in such a manner 
as not to twist the shock at all in the operation, as any twist given to it at this time will tend to 
throw it over as it settles. The best and quickest method of drawing up and tying the shocks is 
for two persons to perform the work together. The rope is passed around the shock, each takes 
an end, both draw with force as nearly equal as possible, and while one holds the two ends the 
other ties the band. 



SORGHUM, MILLET 67 

Shredding or Cutting — The cutting or shredding of the fodder, except for convenience of 
feeding, for mixing with other grain, for spring feeding, or where it is desired to get the corn 
separated from the stover, is not a profitable operation, as not enough more will be consumed, over 
what would be consumed when fed whole and in a similar manner, to pay for the extra expense. 

It is much easier, however, to feed the corn fodder when in this form, and if fed in the barn, 
what is not eaten, if shredded or cut, is very good material for bedding. For spring feeding it 
is much better to have fodder cut or shredded and under cover, as it damages rapidly in the field 
after the warm weather comes on. It is also more difficult to get it from the field at this time and 
the weather conditions are not so favorable for outside feeding. If fed whole, the fodder should 
be fed in racks, or, during freezing weather it may be fed on a good clean, sheltered blue-grass 
pasture, if well scattered. If corn is to be cut and fed with all the corn on, it will produce more 
feed to the acre by planting somewhat thicker than for a grain crop, and the consequent lessening 
in the size of the ears will enable the cattle to handle them better. 

SORGHUM 

Sorghum makes excellent dry feed for winter use and is much relished by all 
classes of stock. 

Culture — The same as for producing a crop for soiling purposes. Cut when the seed is in 
the dough stage. It ma}^ be cut with a corn binder and shocked the same as corn, or mowed and 
handled the same as hay. It should be cured well before being shocked, and then should stand in 
shock for some time before being put 'n stack or barn, as the stalks dry out very slowly In 
sections where the winters are dry and cold, it will keep in very good condition in the field for 
winter feeding, if put in large shockg. 

MiLO Maize — There are two varieties of this non-saccharine sorghum, the white and the 
yellow. This is a heavy yielding crop and one that is also well liked by stock. For some sections 
this may be a more profitable crop than sorghum. Its culture is the same as for sorghum. 

MILLET 

Millet is a quick-growing plant of which there are many varieties, some of them 
very resistant to heat and droitght. Most of them make hay that is not nearly so 
coarse, and is much more easily handled as such, than the crops previously con- 
sidered in this connection. Some of them grow veiy large. Pearl Millet or Pencil- 
laria, that is being so widely advertised by seedsmen, yielding a very large amount 
of hay. Little satisfactory evidence can be obtained, however, at the present time 
as to the character of the hay produced. The yield of most of the millets is very 
much less than that of the sorghums. 

Culture — Sow on well-prepared soil from the middle of May to the 1st of July. In favor- 
able seasons a crop of the earlier varieties may be obtained, as far north as Central Iowa, after a 
crop of barley or early oats has been harvested. Millet should be cut when seeds are well formed. 



68 ANNUALS FOE DRY FORAGE 

SOY BEANS 

The soy bean is a very valuable hay plant, especially if there is no clover or other 
nitrogenous forage on hand. As has been observed, it is especially adapted to thin 
lands and to sections of scant rainfall.^ 

Culture — The same as for soiling purposes. Cut when first pods begin to turn. 

COW-PEAS 

This crop produces a hay very similar to that of the soy bean, except that the 
vines do not stand up so well, and it is difficult to obtain hay of as good quality. 
Culture — The same as for soiling purposes. Cut when first pods begin to turn. 

OTHER SOILING CROPS 

Velvet Bean — In some sections of the South this plant produces a larger 
crop of feed and greater improvement upon the soil than the cow-pea, but it is 
adapted only to extreme southern conditions. 

Oats and Field Peas — This crop furnishes a large quantity of excellent 
forage and is especially adapted to northern sections where the more tropical plants 
do not thrive so well. Varieties should be selected that will ripen together. 

Culture — The same as when grown for soiling. Cut when the oats begin to turn. 

Hairy Vetch — This is not a satisfactory hay crop when grown alone, on 
account of its low trailing habit, but it may be grown with some kind of small 
grain. It usually gives the best results when sown with winter wheat or, in the 
milder climates, with winter oats. 

Culture — Prepare the ground the same as for winter wheat and sow at the same time as for 
a crop of winter wheat. 

With winter wheat mix in equal parts, and with oats mix one part vetch to two parts oats. 
Of the former mixture sow 4 to 6 pecks per acre ; of the latter 8 to 10 pecks should be used. Sow 
with a drill ; in the North this must be a press drill. 

Salt-bnslies — This is a class of plants adapted to extremely dry and strongly 
alkaline regions, where none of the commonly cultivated crops will grow. While 
they are called a bush, the percentage of fiber in them is not large. "While green, they 
are quite succulent. They are relished by all classes of animals, and, for the con- 
ditions above mentioned, are a very valuable supplement to the other feeds. As 
they take up a large amount of salts, their growth on alkali lands tends to correct 

1 Prof. H. Garman, of the Kentucky Experiment I qualities than any other forage plant that has recently 
Station, says of this plant: " In short, it has more good | engaged the attention of our farmers." 



CARE OF PERMANENT MEADOWS 69 

that trouble. Owing to the large amount of salts taken up by them the hay made 
from them should not be allowed to constitute the whole of the roughage, at least 
until the animals become accustomed to it. 

PERMANENT MEADOWS 

While the permanent meadow is not so productive as many of the annual crops, 
yet a piece of good clean mowing ground is a source of great satisfaction to its 
owner. This manner of obtaining forage can not be entirely dispensed with, if the 
productivity of the land is to be conveniently maintained. 

In order for each part of the farm to have an occasional rest from cultivated 
crops and a thorough filling up with grass roots, these mowing lands should not be 
made too permanent, and yet there may often be reason why they should stand for a 
considerable length of time. In such cases some care is often necessary to keep 
them in the most productive condition. 

In some sections meadows are subject to killing by extreme cold and in others by extreme 
drougtit and heat. When this occurs the sod should be scarified with the disk or other efficient 
implement and more seed sown. Frequently the same kind of seed will not produce a growth in 
time to cut with the remainder of the crop the year that it is seeded. In such cases it will be 
advantageous to seed with it some small grain or other quick-growing crop to help out the yield 
of that year. A light dressing of manure immediately following this seeding will sometimes assist 
in getting a good catch. This seeding should be done very early in the spring, before the ground 
becomes settled by the spring rains. 

In many parts of the country great difficulty is experienced in keeping the blue grass out of 
the meadows for any c(msiderable length of time. This, while a very valuable pasture grass for 
such localities, is not a desirable grass to have mixed in the mowing land, as it ripens earlier than 
most other plants used for that purpose and does not grow large, thereby lessening both the yield 
and quality of the hay obtained. This grass can best be kept down by inducing as early and as large 
a growth as possible of the other grasses. To this end the meadows should not be closely pastured, 
the stock being kept entirely from them during the late winter and early spring. An occasional 
dressing of manure will also help greatly in this direction. On farms that can all be cultivated, 
less care need be exercised in keeping this grass out, if the meadow be turned into pasture when 
the blue grass comes in, that which has been in pasture plowed up, and a newly-seeded section used 
for mowing. 

Where plants are used, for permanent meadows, that have a tendency to thicken up into a 
very dense sod, there is often produced what is termed a sod-bound condition. The remedy for 
such a condition is thorough cutting up with a disk and sowing some clover seed, in sections where 
clover thrives, after disking ; the harrow may then be run over the ground to advantage. 

Manuring is also a help in correcting a sod-bound condition. A little manure is a good thing 
for a meadow at any time, and, when it is not needed worse elsewhere, may be applied here to 



70 PEEMANENT MEADOWS 

great advantage. It always should be well rotted, however. When spread on the surface there 
is much less opportunity for decomposition than when incorporated in the soil, and any coarse 
manure will be gathered up more or less with the succeeding crop of bay. 

SEED MIXTURES FOR MEADOWS 

Not only is there an adaptation of plants to climate as regards temperature and 
moisture, but there is also an adaptation to soil conditions. Where there is more 
than one valuable plant adapted to a given condition a larger yield can be obtained 
by growing them together than by growing them separately, owing to the fact that 
difEerent plants will feed somewhat differently. It is, therefore, of advantage, so 
far as time of ripening and habit of growth will permit, to grow these plants in 
combination. 

The following mixtures per acre ' are given as in a general way adapted to the accompanying 
described conditions. The variation of conditions, however, and the manner in which one may 
shade off into another, make it advisable for each locality to do more or less experimenting for its 
own peculiar conditions. 

I. For Humid, and Semi-humid Climates Having- More or Less 

Severe Winters 

(a) For Bich, Well-under- (6) Or, for Rich, Well- (c) For Thin, High 

drained Soils : underdrained Soils : Lands: (d) For Wet Lands : 

Medium Red Clover 6 lbs. Medium Red Clover 7 IbiS. Mammoth Red Clover 6 lbs. Alsike Clover 5 lbs. 

Timothy 4 lbs. Orchard Grass 18 lbs. Timothy __._41bs. Timothy 4 lbs. 

In some sections half the timothy may be replaced to advantage by red-top, although this 
plant does not make as palatable hay as timothy. 

These mixtures may be sown with either a fall or a spring nurse crop. In some localities 
subject to severe, hot, dry weather at the time the nurse crop is removed, better results may be 
obtained, in case a spring nurse crop is used, by seeding the timothy on the stubble at the close of 
the hot weather — say about the 1st of September. 

II. For Humid and Semi-humid Climates Having- Milder Winters 

and Hotter Summers 

(a) For Light, Sandy (b) For Richer, Heavier, (d) For Low, Wet 

Soils: Well-underdrained Soils: (c) Or, instead of (b) : Lands: 

Medium Red Clover 6 lbs. Medium Red Clover 5 lbs. Medium Red Clover. 5 lbs. Alsike Clover 4 lbs. 

Tall Oat Grass 14 lbs. Orchard Grass 15 lbs. Orchard Grass 15 lbs. Red Top 4 lbs. 

Rescue Grass 10 lbs. Tall Fescue 10 lbs. Large Water Grass 4 lbs. 

As a rule, the best time to seed the foregoing mixtures, for the climates mentioned, is at the 
beginning of the fall rains. 

1 The quantity of seed here recommended contem- I thorough preparation of the seed-bed. If either of these 
plates the use of pure, clean, germinable seed and a | conditions is lacking, more seed must be used. 



TKEATMENT OF PASTURES 7l 

III. For Semi-arid Regions 

(a) ib) 

Orchard Grass 20 lbs. Alfalfa 20 to 30 lbs. 

Meadow Fescue 15 lbs. 

Red Clover 3 lbs. 

Seed (a) with a press drill, on thoroughly-prepared ground, well firmed in the subsurface. 
Sow moderately early in the spring, without any other crop, and mow the weeds to prevent 
smothering the first summer.' 

Seed (b) alone, with a press drill, on soil thoroughly prepared, and with the subsurface well 
firmed. Alfalfa^ should be seeded in the fall in localities having dry, hot summers. Where the 
summers are more moderate and the winters more severe, seeding should be done early in the spring 
and the weeds mown the first summer. 

IV. For Arid Climates 

(a) (6) 
Alfalfa 20 to 30 lbs. Smooth Brome Grass 40 to 50 lbs. 

Seed (b) on well-prepared soil, with well-firmed subsurface, early in the spring. Fall plowing 
is best for this purpose. Owing to the coarseness and lightness of the seed, it does not seed readily 
with a drill. Should be sown broadcast, and covered as well as possible with the disk and smooth- 
ing harrow. No alarm should be felt over a somewhat thin appearance of the stand at first, as it 
tends to thicken up very fast after the first year. 

PERMANENT PASTURES 

In most localities there is more or less land that is not suitable for cultivation 
and that must be utilized in the form of a permanent pasture. In any case it is 
usually desirable to have more or less land in this form. The value of such pastures 
will depend very largely upon getting the varieties best adapted to the conditions 
and upon the degree of care that is given them. They are subject to the same 
damaging effects of extreme climatic conditions as are the permanent meadows, 
and the same remedy is applicable. The sod-bound condition, especially in the 
blue grass regions, is even more liable to occur in pastures than in mowing lands. 
The method of spreading by underground runners, that is characteristic of some of 
the best pasture grasses, contributes largely to the development of such a condition.' 

The disking of such pastures, followed by a light seeding of clover and the appli- 
cation of manure, as in the case of mowing lands, is the best method of improving 
them. The native pastures may also be very greatly increased in productiveness 
by thoroughly cutting them up with a disk and seeding with plants adapted to the 
various conditions. 

1 Bulletin 62, Kansas Experiment Station. I to the difficulty of curing it into a good quality of hay in 

2 Alfalfa is hardy and productive in the more moist such climates, 
climates, but is not recommended as a hay crop owing | 



72 PERMANENT PASTURES 

As in the case of mowing lands, a greater productiveness may be secured by 
growing a mixture of plants for pasture. The variety thus afforded also makes the 
pr6duct of greater value. 

SEED MIXTURES FOR PASTURES 

I. For Humid Climates Having Severe Winters 

(a) (c) For High, Rather Thin Soils : 

Medium Red Clover _ 3 lbs. Mammoth Red Clover 3 lbs. 

Kentucky Blue Grass i 8 lbs. Kentucky Blue Grass _ 8 lbs. 

Orchard Qiass 8 lbs. Orchard Grass 8 lbs. 

Smooth Brome Grass 10 lbs. Smooth Brome Grass 10 lbs. 

(6) (d) For Low, Wet Lands : 

Medium Red Clover 2 lbs. Alsike Clover 4 lbs. 

White Clover 2 lbs. Red Top 6 lbs. 

Orchard Grass 8 lbs. Timothy _• 4 lbs. 

Meadow Fescue 5 lbs. 

Smooth Brome Grass 8 lbs. 

All the components of Mixture (a) start very early in the spring, and the clover and brome 
grass will remain green and continue to grow during quite dry weather. 

II. For Humid Climates Farther South 

(a) For Light Sandy Soils : (b) For Richer, Heavier, Well- (c) For Low, Wet Lands : 

underdrained Soils : 

Smooth Brome Grass 15 lbs. Orchard Grass 10 lbs. Alsike Clover 4 lbs. 

Tall Oat Grass 151bs. Tall Fescue , 10 lbs. Red Top 4 lbs. 

Haiiy Vetch 15 lbs. Rescue Grass .10 lbs. Large Water Grass 4 lbs. 

Medium Red Clover 3 lbs. 

(or Hairy Vetch, 12 lbs.) 

Mixture (a), below the snow line, will afford growing pasture for almost the entire year. 
One report^ from the South mentions orchard grass as not being relished by the stock, but as 
a rule they are fond of it. 

All the foregoing mixtures are best sown at the beginning of the fall rains. 

III. For Semi-arid Regions 

Meadow Fescue : 10 lbs. 

Orchard Grass , 12 lbs. 

Smooth Brome Grass 15 lbs. 

Medium Red Clover ._ 2 lbs. 

Alfalfa 6 lbs. 

(a) Prepare the ground thoroughly, and seed with a press drill early in the spring for the 
more northerly regions, and in the fall farther south. 

(b) The same mixture may also be sown advantageously on the native pastures, after first 
thoroughly scarifying them with a disk or other effective implement. 

1 This grass once introduced into a locality to which I 3 Bulletin 87, Kentucky Experiment Station, Lex- 

it is adapted, will usually come into a pasture very ington, Ky. 
quickly without seeding. | 



FIELD CROPS AND GRASSES 



73 



PLANTING TABLE 



NAME. 



Inches Apart in 
Rows. 



Rows or Drills, 
Inches Apart. 



Quantity Sown 
Per Acre. 



Alfalfa .... 
Artichokes 
Barley 



Beans, field, for forage.. 

" soy, for forage . . . 

" soy, for seed 

" velvet, for forage 
Beets, for stock 

" for sugar 

Buckwheat 

Carrots 

Clover, Alsike — 

" red 

Corn, field, for grain 

" " for forage ... 



Cow-peas, for seed 

'• for forage 
Emmer 



Flax 

Grass, blue - 

" bronie, smooth 

" meadow fescue - 

" orchard 

" red top 

"• rescue 

" tall fescue 

" tall oat 

" timothy. 

Kafir-corn, for grain 

" " for forage 

Kohlrabi 

Macaroni wheat, spring seeding. 

" " fall seeding 

Millet 



Milo maize 
Oats 



Peas, field 

Peas and oats, for forage 

Potatoes 

Pumpkins, alone 

Rape 

Rutabagas. . _ 

Rye, for grain 



" for forage 

Sorghum, for forage 



Turnips. 



Vetch.. 
Wheat 



and Hairy Vetch, for forage. 



15 

Drilled 

Broadcast 



In Drills 
In Drills 



In Drills 

Alone 

Alone 

43 to 48 

In Drills 

Broadcast 



Di-illed 

Broadcast 

Drilled • 

Alone 



Drilled 
Drilled 
Drilled 

Broadcast 
Drilled 

Broadcast 
Drilled 

Broadcast 



10 to 18 



In Drills 

Drilled 

Broadcast 



Drilled 

Broadcast 

In Drills 

Broadcast 



Drilled 
Broadcast 



36 



26 to 30 
26 to 30 



26 to 30 
26 to 30 



42 to 48 
30 to 36 



26 to 30 



.36 to 40 



30 to 36 



28 to 30 



20 to 30 lbs. 

6 to 7 bu. 
8 pecks. 
10 pecks. 
2bu. 

3 to 4 pecks. 
2 to 3 pecks. 

1 to 2 bu. 

5 to 15 lbs. 

5 to 1.5 lbs. 

2 to 3 pecks. 

4 to 6 lbs. 

7 lbs. 
10 lbs. 

8 lbs. 

2 to 3 pecks. 

3 to 4 pecks. 
2 to 3 pecks. 

4 to 6 pecks. 

8 pecks. 
10 pecks. 

2 to 3 pecks. 
30 lbs. 
45 lbs. 
25 lbs. 
30 lbs. 

9 lbs. 
30 lbs. 
35 lbs. 
35 lbs. 

6 lbs. 

7 to 10 lbs. 

4 to 5 pecks. 
2 lbs. 

4 to 6 pecks. 
4 to 5 pecks. 

4 to 5 pecks. 
6 pecks. 

6 pecks. 

8 pecks. 
8 pecks. 

10 pecks. 
2 to 3 bu. 
3bu. 

6 to 10 bu. 

5 lbs. 
5 lbs. 
2 lbs. 

4 pecks. 

5 pecks. 

6 pecks. 

75 to 100 lbs. 
100 to 125 lbs. 
2 lbs. 
4 lbs. 
Ibu. 

4 to 5 pecks. 

5 to 6 pecks. 
4 to 6 pecks. 



74 SEED BKEEDING AND SELECTION 

HOME-GROWN SEEDS 

Nothing is of greater importance in the prodnction of any crop than that good 
seed be used to start it. While there are reasons why a man or company making 
seed-growing a sj)ecialty should be able to make the best progress in the develop- 
ment of good seeds, there are, on the other hand, very strong reasons why the farmer 
to a large degree should be his own seedsman. 

Objections to Purchased Seed — As a rule, seedsmen are anxious to 
supply the purchaser with good seed, since they know that spurious seed will lose 
them customers. How well many, of them do this depends entirely upon the intel- 
ligence, vigilance, and integrity of their employes. Much seed is grown by con- 
tract and often in a different part of the country from that in which the seed house 
is located. In this way the purchaser may obtain seeds not adapted to his climate. 

A lack of vigilance in keeping weeds out of the growing seed crop may result in 
seeding the purchaser's farm with weeds that are very difficult to eradicate. The 
handling of a large quantity of seed requires a great deal of care to prevent injury 
to its germinating qualities. A little carelessness on the part of persons having this 
work in charge, or a lack of integrity in reporting conditions, sometimes results in the 
sending out of a lot of seed that is very poor in germinating qualities. The writer 
has purchased from prominent seedsmen seed not 5 per cent of which would grow. 

Some Tests of Purchased SaniiJles — Some of the conditions that 
may be met with in purchased seeds or in home-grown seeds that have not been 
properly cleaned or cared for, are illustrated in Figs. 21, 23, and 23.^ In each 
case tube No. 1 represents a pound of seed as it was obtained on the market; No. 2 
the quantity of pure seed contained in the pound ; No. 3 the amount of broken 
seed and dirt; No. 4 the amount .of spurious seed; No. 5 the total waste, and No. 6 
the quantity of pure and germinable seed. 

It will be observed that of the sample represented in Fig. 21, only about 60 per 
cent was pure seed, and that if it were clover seed purchased at, say, 15 a bushel 
the purchaser would in reality be paying nearly $10 a bushel for the pure seed. 

In Fig. 22 is shown a sample which, while containing a larger percentage of 
pure seed, at the same time contains very little germinable seed. Such a sample 
would be of no value whatever as seed. 

The sample represented in Fig. 23 shows a condition that should always 
obtain, and that with proper care may always be secured in the home-grown seed. 

1 From Farmers' Bulletin 111, United States Department of Agriculture. 



IMPROVEMEJ^T AND MODIFICATION 



75 



<m 



3 4 

Fig. 21. 



Advantages of Home Selection — The im- 
provement of the various crops depends largely upon 
the care used in the growing of the crop from which 
seed is to be selected — whether the soil conditions and 
the cultivation given are such as to produce the greatest 
possible development, or only an imperfect crop. The 
man who selects his own seed has the advantage of 
knowing the condition of the crop from which he makes 
his selection. 

In any field there is more or less variation in the 

development of different 
Ijlants, due to various 
causes. The man who se- 
lects his own seed has an 
opportunity to take advan- 
tage of this and select from 
only the best plants, while 
the seed that is purchased 



i 4 

Fig. 23. 



from those who handle it in 
quantity is usually only an 
average of that grown in 
any one field. 

It will not, of course, 
be practical to select the 
seed for the main crop 
from individual plants of 
such crops as oats, wheat, 
and barley ; but a small 
quantity of seed of these crops may be selected in this 
way each year from which to grow seed the following year. 

One of the chief advantages in the home selection of 
seeds lies in the opportunity afforded by the variation 
due to climatic and soil conditions. In this manner 
crops may be made hardy, the time of ripening changed, 
and in other ways improved in their adaptation to local 
conditions. 



6 



3 4 

Fig. 23. 



76 SEED BKEEDING AND SELECTION 

'* Running Out " of Seed — There is a strong belief in many localities that 
seed grown in a given place for a considerable length of time tends to " run out," 
*. e., to become less productive, and that the only way to maintain the yield is 
occasionally to import fresh seed. No doubt there often is a tendency to deterio- 
ration of this sort, but it is usually due to a lack of proper care in the selection of 
seed and to poor soil conditions. 

Requisites in Seed Selection — Some of the more important observa- 
tions to be made in the selection of seeds are: Yield, quality, uniformity, hardi- 
ness, time of ripening, freedom from attacks of smut and rust, and, in the case of 
small grain, the stiffness of the straw. 

Corn — This crop requires, perhaps, as great care in the selection as any other, and merits 
special attention. The rapid improvement that has been made in this crop, combined with the 
readiness with which the different varieties cross and mix, renders it extremely subject to vari- 
ation. Constant care is necessary in order to establish the desirable qualities that are brought out 
in these variations and to more thoroughly eradicate those not desirable. 

Some of the points (see Figs. 15-20) to be observed in the selection of seed corn are : 

(a) Size and (shape of ear; ear should approach as nearly as may be a uniform diameter from 
end to end. 

(b) Size and quality of cob, a medium-sized cob being much better than a large, spongy one. 

(c) ^ Depth of grain. 

(d) ' Shape of grains; grains should carry their wedge shape uniformly to the end, so that the 
ear may present as nearly as possible a solid surface. 

(e) ' Comring of cob; cob should be as completely and evenly covered as possible at both ends. 

(f) Hardness of grain, too hard and flinty a grain not being readily masticated and digested. 
A hard grain, also, is more liable to be a shallow one. 

(g) Grains of even, uniform size and similar shape, to make possible uniformity of planting. 
. (h) Color of grain, purity of color indicating purity of the corn. 

Care of the Seeds — After the seeds have been selected they should be 
thoroughly dried where they have room to be well spread, so that there will be no 
possible chance for any fermentation. They should not be subjected to freezing 
temjDeratures until well dried. They should be kept in a thoroughly dry place 
during the winter. 

Preparing for Planting — No matter how great care has been taken in 
the handling of seeds, it is a very good practice always to test them before planting, 
as they sometimes lose their vitality from unforeseen causes. This may be done by 
spreading 100 average seeds on a piece of moistened blotting paper or cloth, cover- 
ing with a similar moistened strip, laying them in a plate or pan and covering with 

, 1 Characteristics (c), (d), aud (e) very largely determine the relative percentage of grain and cob. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS 77 

another to prevent drying ont, and setting in a room having a temperature of 65° to 
80". They should be examined occasionally, to see that they do not become too dry 
for the process of germination to take place. The number that germinate (out of 
100 tested) will give the approximate percentage of germinable seeds, and will serve 
as a guide as to the quantity to plant. 

In shelling the corn, the small grains on the tip and, where much unevenness 
occurs, the irregular ones at the butt, should be kept separate from those of the 
rest of the ear, as different sizes and shapes of grains mixed together will not 
plant evenly. 

From the small grains and seeds all the smaller, weaker seeds should be, so far 
as possible, removed. 

All seeds should be thoroughly clean, so that the drills will not become clogged, 
leaving parts of the field unplanted, and so that a portion of what is cown shall not 
be dirt instead of seed. 

WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 

As stated in another connection, every plant has a place in the economy of 
nature — some relation of conditions to which it is adapted better than any other. 
To perform their greatest service, however, plants must be in their proper place. 
When sufficiently out of place to be of no economic value, they become weeds. 
Some grasses that are valuable fodder plants under some conditions, are very 
troublesome weeds under the conditions of other localities. 

Those plants that are not of economic value in a given locality and are therefore 
termed weeds, should so far as possible be eradicated, as the moisture and nourish- 
ment required to produce these plants should be utilized in the production of some 
crop of greater value. No crop grown on the farm will make a maximum develop- 
ment if weeds are allowed to occupy the ground with it. Weeds may also interfere 
with realizing the value of the crop that is produced. The writer has seen pastures 
in which large areas were so thickly set with thistles and other weeds as not only 
to interfere materially with the growth of the pasture grasses but also to prevent 
the animals obtaining what little feed was produced. 

As regards general methods of eradication weeds may be divided into three classes. 

I. ANNUALS 

Annuals are those plants that come from the seed each season. This is by far 
the most numerous group, and the method employed should be such as to prevent 
their seeding. 



78 WEEDS AND THEIE ERADICATION 

Eradication — Seeding may be prevented by thorough cultivation with ordinary tools and 
by the mowing of pastures and fence rows before the seeds are sufSciently matured to grow. The 
least amount of cultivation required to kill any of these weeds is while they are very small, and a 
great amount of extra labor may be saved by performing this operation at the right time. 

If such plants can be entirely prevented from seeding and no weed seed is imported from 
neighboring farms or in purchased seeds, it will be only a question of time when practically all the 
seeds that are in the soil will have germinated and the farm will be entirely free from them. 

There is one class of crops in which it is sometimes very difficult to prevent some of these 
plants from seeding — the various sorts of small grains. One of the best means of prevention in 
these cases is the thorough preparation of the soil, so that no weeds shall be left growing at seeding 
time, and there may be secured a good stand of strong, vigorous plants, that will keep the weeds 
smothered down. 

Where there are a few large scattering annuals that run up to a considerable height above the 
grain, they may be clipped off with a scythe or sickle. 

Some experiments have been made in the way of killing weeds in small grain by spraying with 
various poisonous solutions. All plants are not affected alike by these solutions, hence, it is pos- 
sible to kill some kinds by this means without doing much injury to others. 

For example, at the North Dakota Experiment Station a 10 per cent solution of blue vitriol 
was sprayed over an exceptionally weedy plat of wheat, the principal weeds being wild bai'ley, 
wild rose, penny cress, shepherd's purse, wild buckwheat, lamb's quarter, great ragweed, and char- 
lock or wild mustard. The spraying was done June 7th, when the wheat was 3 to 5 inches high, 
and on August 8th all the weeds, except the wild rose and the older plants of penny cress, were 
dead. Some of the leaf tips of the wheat had been slightly burned, but the yield of grain was 
considerably larger than from an equal area unsprayed. 

On June 20th part of an oat field containing many weeds was sprayed with a solution of 
1 pound of copper sulphate to 4 gallons of water. The oats at time of spraying were about 6 inches 
high. On August 1st the treated area was free from all weeds, except pigeon grass and wild rose. 
The oats on the treated area stooled well and were strong and vigorous, while those on the portion 
not treated were weak and had stooled but little. 

These were stronger mixtures than have generally been found most satisfactory, but in this 
case appeared to rfesult in no injury to the grain crops. Probably the best results will be obtained 
under general conditions by using a 2 per cent solution (1 pound to about 6 gallons of water) and 
applying, at the rate of 40 to 60 gallons per acre. 

Copperas is also quite effective for this purpose and its use will cause less danger from poison- 
ing in case animals should gain entrance to the sprayed field. To have anything like the same 
effect on the weeds it must be used much stronger, about a 10 to 15 per cent solution being necessaiy. 

II. SEEDING PERENNIALS 

In this class are included those perennials (plants that live from year to year), 
which spread only by the distribution of their seed. A good example and one of 
the worst of this class in many localities is the common dock. 



POISONOUS WEEDS 79 

The weeds of this class should not only be kept from producing seed but should be cut below 
the crown with a thistle spud or a common spade and pulled up, as otherwise they will continue 
to send up their seed stalks and require constant cutting. 

III. SEEDING AND SPROUTING PERENNIALS 

In this class are included the perennials, such as the Canada thistle, wild morn- 
ing-glory, quack grass, horse nettle, sheep sorrel, and many others that spread by 
means of seed distribution and also by underground stems or jointed runners. 

Eradication — This is by far the most difficult group to eradicate. These jointed runners 
will not only send up new plants while they are attached to the parent plant, but if cut or broken 
and carried about, the pieces will grow, forming new centers of distribution. These runners have 
great vitality. They may often become dried and lie dormant for a long time ; then, like a seed, 
when the proper conditions are presented, spring into life. Thus it will be readily understood 
how ordinary cultivation is a means of spreading rather than of destroying such plants. 

The general treatment for this class of pests is to put the land into some hoed crop, where prac- 
ticable, and by constant cutting off at the surface of the ground smother them out by not allowing 
them sufficient leaf growth to gather the necessary food from the air. 

Summer fallowing will accomplish the same result if thoroughly and properly done, not allow- 
ing the plants to make an appreciable growth at any time and using surface tools that will shave 
the whole surface, cutting off everything. Wild morning-glory may also be quite successfully 
eradicated by close pasturing with sheep, as these animals are fond of it and will keep it very close, 
soon smothering it out. It may also be destroyed by pasturing with hogs, and allowing them 
to root up and eat the rather fleshy roots and underground stems. 

POISONOUS WEEDS 

The worst kind of weed to let grow is one that not only occupies ground and 

consumes water and food that should be better utilized, but also actually endangers 

the life of man and beast. There are many plants that to a greater or less degree 

possess poisonous properties. Some will poison one kind of animal and not another. 

Some are poisonous for man only when eaten, while others are liable to induce 

poisoning by the handling, especially when they are wet. For a list of these plants, 

together with descriptions by which they may be recognized, and antidotes for cases 

of poisoning, the reader is referred to publications mentioned in the Bil)liograpliy. 

Eradication — Use similar methods as for other weeds, working with great care about 
those that are poisonous to the touch. 




<S:i^><^<2-/^?'-A 



80 BOOKS ON CROPS, SEEDS, AND WEEDS 



PUBLICATIONS ON FIELD AND FORAGE CROPS, SEED 
SELECTION, AND THE ERADICATION OF WEEDS 

Note — For additional publications on specific crops, see also the book list on page 108. 

Alfalfa. By F. D. Coburn. Orange Judd Co., N. Y $0.50 

A suggestive presentation of the best methods of growing this most valuable crop under 
various conditions. 

Alfalfa, OR Lucerne. Farmers' Bulletin 31. United States Department of Agriculture 

Cattle Ranges op the Southwest. Farmers' Bulletin 72. United States Department 

of Agriculture 

Corn, Book of. By Herbert My rick. 07'ange Judd Co., N. Y 1.50 

Corn Culture, Indian. By C. S. Plumb. Breeder's Gazette, Chicago 1.00 

Corn Culture in the South. Farmers' Bulletin 81. United 'States Department of 

Agnculture 

Cowpeas. Farmers' Bulletin 89. United States Department of Agriculture 

Farm Gardening AND Seed Growing. By Francis Brill. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y. . 1.00 

Flax Culture. Orange Judd Cc?., N Y 30 

Flax for Seed and Fiber. Farmers' Bulletin 27. United States Department of Agri- 
culture ■ 

Fodder and Forage Plants. Bulletin 2, Division of Agrostology. United States 

Department of Agriculture .05 

Forage Crops Other Than Grasses. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 

Forage Plants. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co. , '^ . Y 1.00 

This is a thorough treatise on the various plants grown for forage, their characteristics, 
and their adaptation to various conditions of soil and climate. 

Forage Plants, Southern. Farmers' Bulletin 102. United States Department of 

Agriculture 

Germination of Seeds as Affected by Commercial Fertilizers. Bulletin 24, Divi- 
sion of Botany. United States Department of Agriculture .05 

Good Seed, The Farmers' Interest in. Farmers' Bulletin HI. United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 

Grasses, American. Bulletin 7, Division of Agrostology. United States Departnunt of 

Agriculture .20 

Grasses and Clover. By H. A. Dreer, Philadelphia, Pa 25 

Grasses, The True. By Edward Hackel. Henry Holt & Co., 'Si. Y 1.50 

This is purely a textbook, treating of only the one famUy of plants. 



BOOKS ON CROPS, SEEDS, AND WEEDS 81 

Hemp. By S. S. Boyce. Orange Judd Cb., N. Y $0.50 

Hop, The. By Herbert Myrick. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . 1.50 

Hop Culture in California. Farmers' Bulletin 115. United States Bepartimnt of 

Agriculture 

Hops. By Emanuel Gross. D. Van JVostrand Co , 'N . Y 4.50 

Thi.s is an exhaustive treatise on this crop, considered in its botanical, agricultural, and 
technical aspects, and as an article of commerce. 

Kafir Corn. Farmers' Bulletin 37. United States Department of Agriculture . . . . 

Treats of the characteristics, culture, and uses of this crop. 

Leguminous Plants. By E. W. Hilgard. The Macmillan Co.,'N.Y ~ . 1.00 

Manuring op Cotton, The. Farmers' Bulletin 48. United States Department of Agri- 
culture 

Meadows and Pastures in the Middle Eastern States. Farmers' Bulletin 66. 

United States Department of Agriculture 

Millets, The. Farmers' Bulletin 101. United States Department of Agriculture . . 

Peanut Plant, The. By B. W. Jones. Orange Judd Co., N. Y . . . . . .50 

Peanuts: Their Culture and Uses. Farmers' Bulletin 25. United States Depart- 
ment of Agricxdture 

Poisonous Plants, Thirty. Farmers' Bulletin 86. United States Department of 

Agriculture . . 

Gives information as to means of recognition, symptoms of poisoning, and treatment for 
same. 

Poisonous Plants of the South. Bulletin 9, Volume XXH. North Carolina State 

Board of Agriculture ... 

Principal Poisonous Plants in the United States. Bulletin 20, Division of Botany. 

United States Department of Agriculture ... . .05 

Red Clover Seed. Farmers' Bulletin 123. United States Department of Agriculture . 

Soiling Crops and the Silo. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.50 

A comprehensive discussion of the crops best adapted to a line of work that should receive 
increasing attention from the farmers of the country. 

Sorghum as a Forage Crop. Farmers' Bulletin 50. United States Department of 

Agriculture 

Sorghum Syrup Manufacture. Farmers' Bulletin 135. United States Department of 

Agriciilture 

Soy Bean, The, as a Forage Crop. Farmers' Bulletin 58. United States Department 

of Agriculture 

Sugar Beet, The. Farmers' Bulletin 52. United States Department of Agriculture . . 

Sugar Beet Seed, Selection in Growing. By Lewis S. Ware. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. 1 .50 

Sugar Industry, American. By Herbert Myrick. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.50 



82" BOOKS ON CROPS, SEEDS, AND WEEDS 

Tobacco, Culture of. Farmers' Bulletin 82. United States Department of Agriculture . 

Tobacco CuLTunE. By Fourteen Growers. Orange Judd Co., l!i. Y $0.25 

Tobacco Leaf. By Killebrew and Myrick. Orange Judd Co., 'Si.Y 2.00 

A practical handbook, discussing methods of growing, harvesting, curing, packing, and 
selling tobacco. 

Tobacco, Method.s of Curing. Farmers' Bulletin 60, United States Department of 

Agriculture ... 

Tobacco Soils. Farmers' Bulletin 83. United States Department of Agriculture . . . 

Weeds and How to Kill Them. Farmers' Bulletin 28. United States Department of 

Agriculture 

Weeds : How to Eradicate Them. By Thomas Shaw. Thomas Shaw, St. Anthony 

Park, Minn 1.00 

Weeds, Legislation Against. Bulletin 17, Division of Botany. United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture .05 

Wheat Culture. By D. S. Curtis. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 50 



Veg*etable Garden and Trncking- Crops 

By Arthur T. Erwin 
Assistant Professor of Horticulture, Iowa College of Agriculture 

ESSENTIALS IN GARDENING 
The Soil — Any fertile, well-drained soil, suitable for corn, will produce good 
garden crops. With a home garden a first requisite is convenience to the kitchen, 
hence, there is usually little choice as regards special soils. Certain soils have their 
specific adaptatioji to special crops, however, and the grower who devotes attention 
to particular kinds should make a close study of this local factor. In general, 
'^ quick," sandy soils are best adapted for early crops. On the other hand, they do 
not retain moisture so well in the heat of the summer, hence, for later crops a more 
retentive soil is preferable. Aside from this, on a rolling soil a variation in eleva- 
tion will often produce crops which mature several days earlier, and even on a small 
plot this variation should be noted and used to best advantage. 

Planning' the Garden — It is a lamentable but indisputable fact that the 
farmer's table is not supplied with its daily quota of fresh vegetables as it should be. 
Poor planning and improper arrangement of the vegetable garden are no doubt 
in large measure resj^onsible for this. As commonly laid out, the garden requires 
an endless amount of hand labor, which is always expensive and far in excess of 
that required for any other proportionate area on the farm. The work should be so 
planned that the 'Miorse hoe"' may be used whenever possible. To facilitate this, 
the garden should be oblong in shape and the crops planted in long rows (Fig. 24). 
At each end it is well to leave a strip of sod as a turning ground. Group crops 
according to their season of maturing, placing all perennial crops, such as rhubarb 
and asparagus, in adjoining rows, and early crops, such as peas and beans, together. 
The prevailing system of growing the various crops in raised beds is a poor one, 
except for a few of the very early crops. With these it has an advantage in providing 
a soil which warms up earlier, but for general crops it is expensive and unnecessary. 
The soil is also more exposed and likely to suffer from drought. Regarding this 
matter, I can not do better than quote the words of Professor Bailey, the truth 
of whose statement many a farmer's boy will verify: 

'' The old practice of growing vegetables in beds usually entails more labor and 

(83) 



84 ESSENTIALS IN GAEDENING 

expense than the crop is worth, and it has had the effect of driving more than one 
boy from the farm. These beds always need weeding on Saturdays, holidays, circus 
days, and the Fourth of July." 

Eegarding the size of the area for the family garden, much, of course, depends 
upon the size of the family and their fondness for vegetables. Bailey recommends 
100 by 150 feet for a family of five. This is based upon the constant use of the 
ground and a close succession of crops, a plan which is most essential in the limited 
area of the city man's garden. In the country, however, conditions are different. 
Land is more plentiful and help is the expensive item. In this case, less intensive 
succession of crops, less hand labor, and a larger area of land seem advisable. For 
the needs of the average farmer's family of five, including potatoes and vine crops, 
from one-half to three-fourths of an acre is none too large. Essential requirements 
in the family garden are variety and a regular supply, rather than a large crop of 
any given kind. 

In the garden a limited rotation of crops is essential. Certain crops have their 
specific enemies, such as the club root of cabbage, and rotation is the only practical 
method of keeping these foes in check, as well as aiding in maintaining soil fertility. 



PAR TI AL 


- SEAS 


ON 


CROPS 


— i\/i 


/\ f T>vT - _ 








1 VI ,^-\ ii>j - -_- - 


S E ASON 


. _ _ _ _ _ /'^^ "CD <'~^ TD Ci 


^^^ i-< t^ Jr-' cr> 




RER E N IMIy^L 


CRORS 



PARTIAL-SEASON CROPS: MAIN-SEASON CROPS: PERENNIAL CROPS: 

Tiirnino Rootc Vi ne C fops ( Melons, etc.) , m. u l. 

^pTaf bIT Corn Tor.atoes Egg ^lant '^^''Tors^e-rad' h"'"' 



FiQ. 24. Plan for garden. A convenient arrangement, with a view to securing long rows, for horse cultivation- 



LABOE-SAVING IMPLEMENTS 



85^ 



Seed — Seed should be purchased from a reliable seedsman and one 
should expect to pay a good price for a good article. Cheap seeds and 
bargain packages are invariably a dear investment at any price. 

Varieties — The testing of new varieties is a fascinat- 
ing line of work, and every grower should devote a small 
area to this purpose, but for the main crop. 




Fig. 25. Typical single- wheel hoe and cultivator. 

Environment is a ruling factor with varieties. 



" The friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, 
Grapple them to thy soul with hoops of steel." 

The naming of varieties in 
the following pages should be 
regarded as tentative, those 
mentioned being named as the 
representatives of certain types 
which have a general adapta- 
tion rather than as specific varieties 
and. one can determine the kinds best adapted to his peculiar conditions only by 
actual experience. 

Implements — Among the most important of the implements for general 
cultivating and garden work may be mentioned the various types of horse hoes, 
hand cultivators, and wheel hoes. These types of tools are invaluable and in a 
single season will pay for themselves in labor saved. They should be regarded as 
an essential part of one's equipment. 

In dry seasons thorough preparation of the seed-bed is of special 
importance. If the soil is cloddy and open it dries out 
quickly, and poor germination results. The soil particles 
should be fine and well worked together. Often the 
roller is of special advantage for this work. For 
summer planting the advice of Peter Hen- 
derson, to "place your foot on 
every seed you plant," may be 
followed with jorofit. 

Transplanting- — In 
transplanting, it is best to do 
the work in the cool part of the 
day, as this enables the plants to 
revive during the night. Wilt- ^^^' ~^' '^^'P'*^^' double-wheel hoe and cultivator, for straddling 




86 ESSENTIALS IN GAEDENING 

ing is much less severe in a moist atmosphere, hence when possible it is an advan- 
tage to transplant cabbage and other seed-bed crops just before a rain. Wilting 
is caused by the uncompensated giving off of moisture from the leaves. In the 
plant there is normally an equilibrium between the root system and the foliage. 
In transplanting, the root system is partially destroyed and as a result the amount 
of moisture required for the foliage is in excess of the supply and wilting follows. 
Hence, in transplanting crops of any kind it is important to cut back the tops to 
make them balance with the root system. With such plants as celery and cabbage, 
about one-half of the leaf surface should be cut back. On a small scale, good 
results may be accomplished by placing a flower pot over each plant for the first 
day or two. This keeps the plant cool and' moist and enables it to become reestab- 
lished before being exposed to the hot sun. If the soil is dry, watering after trans- 
planting is advisable, though under average conditions for work done in the spring 
of the year this is unnecessary. There is an ample water supply in the soil which 
will be rendered available if pains are taken to firm the soil well, bringing the moist 
particles into close contact with the delicate roots. 

Hardening Off — Sudden changes in temperature are always trying on plant 
life. Plants which have been started within doors should be gradually accustomed 
to the outside temperature before being placed in the field. This process is known 
as ''hardening off." In hardening off, the plants are usually watered less freely 
to harden up the growth somewhat, and the ventilation period is gradually length- 
ened each day until the plants are accustomed to the outside temperature. • As a 
result, such plants readily become reestablished in the new soil, whereas, if suddenly 
withdrawn from the higher temperature the check in growth would be severe and 
earliness often would be sacrificed. This is of special importance, as earliness is 
the essential object in starting any plants indoors. 

HOTBEDS 

Location and Construction — For the starting of tomato plants, early 
cabbage, sweet potato, and similar vegetables, hotbeds are a necessity. The beds 
should be located upon a south or east slope with a building or fence to protect 
from the north and west winds. The soil for the frames is usually excavated to a 
depth of about two feet and filled in with manure. This should be piled and allowed 
to heat for a few days, and turned before being placed in the beds. It should be 
thoroughly tramped as thrown into the beds, taking special pains to firm around the 
edges. The temperature will again rise, and no planting should be done until the 



HOTBEDS AND FORCING BOXES 



87 



temperature has reached its maximum and has fallen to about 90°. Four inches of 
mallow garden loam should now be placed over the manure, and the bed is ready 
for use. 

The seeds may be sown directly in this soil. Care must be taken, especially for 
the first few days, to provide proper ventilation, as the heat is quite strong and 
ammonia is given off freely. 

In the prairie region the sash are apt to be blown off and broken by the wind. 
To avoid this the frames should be slightly wider than the lengtli of the sash, and 
an inch strip placed along each side, extending up the height of the sash bar, to 
prevent the wind from getting under the sash. The accompanying illustration. 
Fig. 27, will indicate the gen- 



eral plan and structure of a 
simple hotbed. 

Forcing: Boxes — A 

forcing box is very cheap in 
construction, and will enable 
one to secure crops of lettuce 
and radishes two or three weeks 
earlier than from out-of-doors. 
These boxes are operated upon 
the principle that heat is readily 
stored up under glass. The 




... .3 SOIL 



. > J«5 -^^J- M A N U R F V„>' ^ 



J«5 



MANURE ^A^' 



P^ >- 1, fei ^ IT." ^ 






Fig. 27. A ojmplc hutbed. vEi-wm.; 

soil is spaded and a bottomless box, the size of a window sash, is placed over the 
area. The sash should be left closed for several days, during which period the 
temperature will run up considerably if the weather be sunny. The seed should 
then be sown, and as soon as the plants germinate ventilation and watering will be 
necessary. If a number of sash are desired, 6-incli fencing boards may be used 
for the sides. 

Those who are interested in the growing of special crops will find an extended 
list of literature at the end of this section. In addition to special works, every 
grower of garden plants should possess a copy of some general book on this subject, 
such as Green's Vegetable Gardening, or Bailey's Principles of Vegetable Gardening. 



88 CULTUKAL DIRECTIONS 

TUBER AND BULB CROPS 

IRISH POTATO SWEET POTATO ONION LEEK 

IRISH POTATOES 

The Irish potato is a staple article of food throughout the civilized world, and 
probably ranks second only to wheat as a food product. It is essentially a northern 
crop, but thrives best in a warm soil of a slightly sandy texture. The pine lands 
of this quality in Wisconsin and Minnesota seem to furnish ideal conditions for its 
growth. 

Culture —The most important point is an ample supply of moisture. Without this, good 
tubers can not be produced. It is not a bog plant, however, and good drainage is necessary. An 
ample water supply throughout the season may be secured by early planting and frequent surface 
tillage. The soil should be fertile, and it is a good plan to plow under a coat of manure in the 
fall of the year, leaving the ground in the rough until spring. The manure should be thoroughly 
decayed, however, as fresh manure seems to favor scabby potatoes. 

It is often best, as a matter of fact, to apply a heavy coat of manure to some crop grown the 
previous season, rather than the year the potatoes are grown. In addition to the scab, grub- 
worms are also very much worse in freshly manured soil. The preparation of the ground should 
be deep and thorough, as the tubers develop better in a loose soil. 

If plowed in the fall, the ground should be replowed just before planting and the rows then 
laid out, making the furrow at least four inches deep. With this thorough preparation before 
planting, the tubers have ample room to form below the surface and they are much less liable to 
grow above the soil and turn green. 




Fig. 2^ Some noteworthy varieties of Irish potato. (Erwin.) 



lEISH POTATOES 89 

Seed potatoes should be cut with at least one sound eye to each piece. Cutting machines are 
used, and for large planting are convenient, but no mechanical device can equal a knife in the 
hands of an intelligent operator. There is much speculation as to the proper size of pieces and 
number of eyes to a seed. It should be borne in mind that the eye is a young plant and the tuber 
contains a storehouse of material for it to feed upon until it becomes established in the soil ; hence, 
the important thing is to have an ample supply of food for each eye. Medium-sized tubers are 
preferable, anji a liberal-sized piece should be allov^ed to each eye. The use of peelings and small, 
inferior potatoes for seed purposes is to be condemned, as poor crop and the "running out of the 
variety" is an inevitable result. Plant 15 inches apart, with Si feet between the rows. At this 
distance ten bushels of seed will be required per acre. 

After planting, the ground should be harrowed, in order to make it firm and smooth and to 
kill young weeds; and the operation should be repeated frequently until the plants appear. Until 
the young plants have attained a height of 4 to 6 inches they may be cultivated with a light, 
slant-toothed harrow or weeder. This is a very effective method of cultivating, as it destroys the 
weeds in the hills, where they are difficult to get at with a plow, and it will not harm the potatoes. 
After this plowing alone can be practiced. This should be continued until the plants have 
attained full growth and the vines begin to spread, after which no cultivation is necessary except 
in very dry seasons. The cultivating should be shallow, and many prefer the one-horse cultivator 
to the double-shovel plow. 

The last cultivating is done with a double shovel, throwing the furrow to the row, thus 
ridging the ground slightly. 

Digging- — The maturing of the tubers is indicated by the dying of the vines. With early 
varieties and a good market, it will pay to dig at once. Later varieties handle better if left in the 
ground until well ripened. If the soil is moderately dry it furnishes an ideal place for the maturing 
of the tubers. In wet falls, however, they will rot instead of ripening if left in the ground after 
the tops die away. Under such conditions it is advisable to harvest as soon as the tops are dead. 

Hand digging is expensive and practiced only on a small scale. For large areas potato diggers 
are largely used and are quite satisfactory. 

Sorting and Storage — After harvesting the grower is confronted with the problem of 
storing or selling at once. Spring prices are often glittering, but the fluctuation makes the risk 
of holding all the greater The shrinkage and loss in storage must also be taken into account. 
One must be one's own judge in taking account of existing conditions, but in general, Terry's 
advice that " Cash in the bank is better than potatoes in the cellar" is good. 

Before selling, the tubers should be carefully assorted into uniform grades. Often a graded 
article will command a ready sale at a good price while a mixed crop will go begging, and in any 
case the first-class tubers in a mixed lot are rated in and sold at the price of the seconds. The very 
small tubers injure the sale of tlie product and should be kept at home for chicken feed. In the 
spring, the work may be done very much more rapidly with a sorting machine. In the fall, how- 
ever, the use of this machine is not advisable if the potatoes are to be stored or kept any length of 
time, as the skin is quite tender and they are likely to be more or less peeled and bruised. 

A dark, well-ventilated cellar with a temperature 6° to 8° above freezing is the best place for 
storing. Raised floors and an interval of a few inches between the bins and the wall should be 



90 



TUBER AND BULB CROPS 



provided to admit of proper ventilation. It is also an advantage to have the sides of the bins 
constructed of slats rather than solid boards. The exclusion of light is important, as the tubers 
develop chlorophyll and turn green in the presence of sunlight, vrhich spoils the flavor of the tuber. 
Temporary storage may be 
provided in the fall by 
piling and covering with 
stravr to protect from frost. 
Sprouting in winter usually 
indicates too high a tem- 
perature, and may largely 
be prevented by keeping the 
temperature down and ex- 
cluding the light. 

Varieties vary much 
in their adaptation to local 
conditions. Those grown 
on wet, swampy soils are 
watery and more or less 
touiih ill texture. The same 



varieties grown on upland 
soil will be higher in flavor 
and more mealy in charac- 
ter. Restaurant and hotel- 
keepers prefer the former 
for Saratoga chips and the 
latter for baking. Early 
Ohio, Maggie Murphy, Car- 
man, and Rural New Yorker 
are standards. The Burbank 
is another favorite variety 
and regarded by many as of 
the first rank in quality, 
though not so productive as 
the others named. 





Fig. 29. Well-known varieties of sweet potato. (Ei-win.) 



SWEET POTATOES 

The sweet potato is distinctly tropical in its requirements. A light, warm soil, 
rich in organic matter, is essential. Cold or heavy clay soils are unsuccessful. In 



SWEET POTATOES, ONIONS 91 

the South, level culture is practiced. In the cooler sections of the North the ridge 
system secures a warmer soil, and is an advantage, especially in wet seasons. 

Propagation and Culture — The sweet potato is usually propagated from shoots started 
in hotbeds. The tubers are placed quite close together but not touching each other, and covered 
with 2 or 3 inches of soil. The shoots are taken off when 3 or 4 inches in height, and transplanted 
to the field when the ground becomes warm. Frequent cultivation of the surface soil is important 
and will do much toward producing good-sized tubers. The question is often asked as to whether 
or not it will pay to remove the vines in order to prevent their rooting. A number of experiments 
have been conducted along this line, and the consensus of opinion is that it will not, there being 
little difference in yield between the crops so treated and those where the vines have been allowed 
to grow unmolested. 

The sweet potato is a main-season crop and the vines remain green until frost. Before dig- 
ging, the vines should be mown off with a brier scythe If the crop is caught by an unexpected, 
heavy frost the vines should be cut away in the early morning before the sun blackens them, other- 
wise the keeping qualities of the roots seem to be affected. The tubers bruise readily, and require 
careful handling They must have a higher storage temperature than that of other root crops, 
keeping well in a temperature of 55° to 60°. The roots are usually packed in barrels, buckwheat 
chaff or sawdust being used as a filler. 

Varieties — In popular parlance the term "Yam" is used to designate the yellow-skinned 
types of sweet potato.' In the South this type reaches perfection and produces tubers with a high 
percentage of sugar and of a rich, mealy character. In many parts of the North, however, the red 
sorts are preferred. Vineless varieties of the sweet potato have attracted recent attention. Such 
a type is no doubt desirable, but the varieties produced thus far have generally proved poor 
bearers. Florida, Red Jersey, and Yellow Jersey are among the most productive sorts in the 
North. 

OXIONS 

The onion is a hardy plant and should be sown as soon as the ground will 
permit. 

Culture — A convenient plan is to sow with a drill, placing the rows 13 to 15 inches apart. 
When the plants reach a height of 3 inches, thin to 4 inches apart. In doing this care should be 
taken that the remaining plants are left intact, with the soil firm around them. Careful hand- 
weeding is necessary until the plants become well established. If neglected in the early stages 
of growth, the young plants are easily smothered out by weeds. This is the most expensive 
period in the growing of onions, and the Hazeltine weeder is an invaluable tool for this work 
Later, some form of a hand wheel hoe can be used to excellent advantage. 

When the tops die off the crop is ready for harvesting. Bunch three rows together and 
allow them to lie until perfectly dry. This period is a critical one in the care of the crop. If 
allowed to remain in the ground after the tops die they are likely to throw out new roots after 
the first rain. On the other hand, the bulbs must be thoroughly dry before storing. A cool, dry 
shed should be provided for this purpose. A series of shelves, four inches in depth and with 
ample space between for free circulation of air, furnishes excellent conditions for storage. 



92 PULSE CEOPS 

Freezing is not injurious, if the building is well enclosed to prevent sudden freezing and thawing. 
For small crops a portion of the haymow may be used for storage. 

Onion Sets — Sets are produced by sowing the seed very thickly and preferably on a poor 
soil. On account of the crowded condition the young bulbs can not develop fully and growth is 
arrested when they are about half size. To prevent the sets from overgrowing the seed should 
not be sown until the middle of June. Bulbs one-half inch in diameter command the top price. 
The sets are planted as soon as the soil can be worked in the spring, and the crop is usually ready 
for market by the first of June. The bulbs are set 3 inches apart and about 3 inches deep, taking 
pains to firm the soil well around the bulb. 

Varieties — There are three general types of varieties, white, red, and yellow skinned. The 
white are usually more mild in flavor. In many markets the demand for red exceeds all others. 
Early Bed Wethersfield, Yellow Strasburg, and Silver Skin are general favorites. 

LEEKS 

These are a species of onion producing a straight stem. The stems are mild in 
flavor and are highly prized for winter soitps. 

Culture — The culture is similar to that of the onion. The leek requires the entire season 
for growth and is stored in the green state, as in the case of celery. 
"Varieties — American Flag is a desirable sort. 

PULSE CROPS 

PEAS BEANS 

Peas and beans belong to the family Legummosce, and by the botanist are 
regarded as closely related. Horticnlturally, however, they differ essentially as 
regards cultural requirements, beans being a tropical plant, while peas are hardy 
and a cool-season crop. 

PEAS 

Culture — Peas should be sown as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring. In 
many sections successional crops may be had by planting every two weeks. In the drier atmos- 
phere of the Northwest, however, they do not thrive well in late summer, and the early-season 
crop is the main one. A fall crop may be secured by sowing early-maturing varieties the fore- 
part of July. A good rotation may be secured by planting the ground to early potatoes, harvesting 
these in July, and sowing to peas for a fall crop 

Varieties — There are two types of peas generally grown in the United States, those having 
a small, round seed, and tho.se having wrinkled seed. The wrinkled sorts are the less hardy and 
should be planted later in the spring. While less vigorous than the smooth, round peas, they are 
regarded by many as superior in quality, and for this reason are preferable for the main-season 
crop. In addition to these there is a third type with an edible pod, known as the sugar pea. 
While popular abroad, they are little grown as yet in this country. 



POLE AND BUSH BEANS 



93 



The tall-growing varieties of peas are usually grown in double rows 5 feet apart and sup- 
ported by brush or wire netting. The dwarf sorts are equally productive, however, and are 
largely supplanting the tall kinds, because they require no support. On rich soil peas tend to 
vine too heavily, and the best crops are secured on a moderately poor soil. 

For early planting some of the best varieties are First of All, Extra Early, and Gradus; Main- 
season crop; Junus, Nott's Excelsior, 
and Stratagem. 

BEANS 

The garden beans are na- 
tives ot the warmer parts of 
South Africa,' and are very 
tender to frost. For this reason 
they should not be planted 
until the ground has become 
warmed. A good guide for 
planting time is ''when the oak 
leaves reach the size of squir- 
rels' ears." If the seed is sown 
too early it decays quite readily. 

In their cultural require- 
ments beans' are divided into 
two types: Pole Beans — climb- 
ing varieties which require a 
support — and the dwarf, com- 
pact-growing sorts, known as 
Bush Beans. 

Pble Beans : Culture — 

The climbing Lima bean belongs to 
this type and is a kind, of high flavor, 
much prized in the South and East. 
It is more tender than the bush beans, 
however, and for this reason is not 
so successful in the Northwest. In 
that section the Dwarf Limas are 
more satisfactory. In planting pole 
beans it is best to place the poles, 
before planting, in rows 3 feet each 
way. If the soil is thin it is a good 




"VtUAJ' U; O-IVXCA. 



Fig. 30. Some standard varieties of Lima beans. 



94 



VINE CROPS 



practice to apply a shovelful of well -decayed manure under each hill. To insure a good stand, 6 
to 8 seeds should be sown to each pole. Wire netting is a convenient support and in many sections 
is preferable to poles. Some of the standard varieties of pole beans are Dreer's Pole Lima, Siebert's 
Lima, and Large Lima. 

Busll Beans: Culture — Bush beans require a very much shorter growing season, and 
by successional sowings may be had for table supply throughout the svimmer. The last planting 
should be made at least seven or eight weeks before heavy frost. 

To secure good snap or string beans a rapid growth is necessary. Otherwise the pods become 
stringy. It is also necessary to keep all pods picked, allowing none to mature, for the ripening 
seeds will check the growth of the plant and destroy the future supply of green pods. When 
grown as a field crop for market the plants are pulled by hand and piled with the roots upward, 
or harvested with a bean puller. If not allowed to stand until the pods shell too much they may 
be mowed and raked up as hay. For small quantities, a hand flail and fanning mill may be used 
for threshing and cleaning. By large growers, a regular bean thresher is employed. 

Varieties — Bush Beans: Yellow Podded, Golden Wax, and Valentine Wax. Shell and 
String Beans: Stringless Oreen Pod and Early Refugee. For field use, the Navy is probably best 
known. Dwarf Limas, Henderson's Bush Lima, and Burpee's Bush Lima are common types. 
Dwarf Limas are not equal to pole Limas in flavor and quality, but have the advantage of maturing 
earlier and being more productive. 



VINE CROPS 



CUCUMBERS 



MELONS 



PUMPKINS 



SQUASHES 

Vine crops are frost-tender and thrive best on a warm, sandy soil. They are 
grown in hills and cnltivated both ways so long as the vines will permit. In the 
North they require the entire season for growth and should be planted as soon as 
the weather becomes well settled and warm. The flowers of vine 'crops are mone- 

cious, i. e., the male flower is 
borne upon one branch and 
the female upon another. The 
pollen is transferred by bees, 
hence this insect plays an im- 
portant part in the growing of 
this class of vegetables, failure 
being sometimes due to lack of 
proper poUenization. 

CUCUMBERS 

Culture — Plant as soon as the 

soil becomes thoroughly warm, in 

Fig. 31. Popular varieties of cucumber. (Erwin.) hills 6 feet each way. To allow for 




MUSKMELONS, WATEEMELONS 



95 



insect ravages it is well to plant 6 to 10 seeds to a hill, and thin to 3 when the plants begin to vine 
well. Cultivate both ways as long as possible. No fruit should be allowed to ripen on the vine, 
as this will cause the plants to discontinue growth and cut short the crop. 

Varieties — The White Spine, Long Green, and Cool and Crisp are standards. 



MUSKMELONS 



There is much confusion regarding the itse of the term muskmelon and canta- 
loup. With some the terms are regarded as synonymous. According to Bailey's 
Cyclopedia of American Horticulture the cantaloup is a special form of muskmelon, 
having a deeper furrow and a hard rind. 

Culture — The cul 
ture of the muskmelon is 
similar to that of the cu- 
cumber. The fruits are 
of a higher flavor if al- 
lowed to remain on the 
vines until they separate 
readily at the shoulder. 

Varieties — A large, 
nearly smooth-skinned 
type known as the Montreal 
muskmelon has recently 
aroused considerable in- 
terest in the West. While 
of a superior size it is 
coarse and low in quality. 

-,. ' , ,, '. , Fig. 32. Anexcellent variety of muskmelon, of the fine-netted skin type. (Erwin.) 

medium- to- small -Si zed 

varieties with a finely netted skin are the par excellence of quality. Of this type the Netted Oem 

and the well-known Rocky Foi'd, which is a slight variatipn of the Gem, are good examples. 




WATERMELONS 



The watermelon thrives best in the South. Good crops may be grown in the 
North, however, if planted on an early "quick" soil. 

Culture — The hills are usually placed 8 or 10 feet apart, and, if the soil is thin, a shovelful 
of well-decayed manure should be placed under each hill. The fruit is borne on the side branches, 
and many growers recommend the pinching back of the terminal buds to stimulate side growth. 

Varieties — Mountain Sweet and Hungarian Honey are good northern sorts. 



96 ANNUAL ROOT CROPS 

CITRON 

Citron is a fruit very similar to the watermelon in appearance and culture, but 
bearing a thick, hard, fleshy rind, which is used for preserving. 

PUMPKINS 

Pumpkins are coarse growers and, hence, are generally planted in the field 
rather than the garden. A favorite plan is to plant in alternate rows in every sec- 
ond hill in the cornfield. The fruit should be stored or covered with fodder upon 
the approach of heavy frost. The crop is largely grown for stock, and finds only 
limited use as a table vegetable. 

SQUASHES 

The term "squash" is quite a broad one, including those classes of gourds 
which produce an edible fruit. It is a popular error that squashes, pumpkins, and 
melons will cross-fertilize if planted near one another. Those who have made 
careful investigation, however, are emphatic in their statements that such is 
not the case, and that squashes never cross with watermelons and spoil their flavor, 
as is sometimes stated. Hand crosses between the pumpkins and squashes failed 
in the majority of cases, and in no case were the results apparent until the second 
generation. 

Culture — The general cultural requirements of the squash are similar to those of the 
cucumber except with the long-vined sorts, for which the hills should be ten feet apart. Sow 6 to 
8 seeds per hill and thin to 3., Of the summer squashes, Silver Custard and Crookneck are good 
varieties ; of the winter squashes, Boston Marrow and Huthard. 

Varieties — There are two distinct types of squashes— the summer and winter species. 
The summer varieties mature early and are used before the rind hardens. The fall and winter 
varieties are usually provided with a hard, flinty shell of a warty appearance. The Hubbard is a 
well-known and excellent representative of this class. Winter varieties are readily stored if 
handled carefully and held at a temperature of 40° to 50°. 

ANNUAL ROOT CROPS 

BEETS CARROTS TURNIPS SALSIFY PARSNIPS RADISH 

Root crops are of the easiest culture. The essential conditions are a deep, rich 
soil, with ample moisture. A straight, symmetrical root is required, and to secure 
this, deep plowing and a well-prepared seed-bed are necessary. The soil should be 
fertile, but it is not advisable to plow under fresh manure, as the roots are apt to 
acquire an astringent flavor and a forked growth. On poor, clay soils the roots are 
usually leathery and of inferior quality. 



BEETS, CAREOTS, TURNIPS 97 

BEETS 

There are two general types of beets — the turnip-rooted and the long-rooted. 
The turnip-rooted sorts mature the more quickly and are generally grown for the 
early-season crop. 

Culture — The beet ranks with the onion and pea in point of hardiness, and should be sown 
as soon as the ground is in a tillable condition. Plant 1 inch deep in rows 3 feet apart. As the 
seed usually germinates unevenly, it is well to sow thickly. Thin as the plants reach 5 or 6 inches 
in height until they are 5 inches apart. The thinnings make excellent greens. By successional 
sowing a suppl}^ may be had throughout the summer and fall. Upon the approach of heavy frost 
the crop should be pulled and piled. The tops are cut off 3 inches above the crown.. This is 
important, as, if the crown of the root is cut, they readily decaJ^ Store in a cool cellar or root pit. 
If the atmosphere is dry they should be covered with slightly moistened soil or sand. If allowed 
to dry out the roots become wilted and corky. Good corn land is well adapted to beet growing, 
and for early varieties a quick, sandy soil is advantageous. 

Varieties — The Eclipse is a general favorite. Other standard varieties are the Early Turni'p. 
Egyptian, and Long Dark Blood. 

CARROTS 

I 

Culture — Like other root crops, the carrot thrives best on a rich, deep, well-drained soil. 
The plants are quite hardy and of the easiest culture when once established. The seed germinates 
slowly, and hence it is a good practice to sow with it some companion crop, such as radish. This 
will keep the rows defined and insure early culture. Early culture is important, as the young 
plants are rather delicate and easily smothered out by weeds if neglected. The seed should be 
sown rather thickly and the plants thinned to 3 inches apart. Early varieties are sown as soon as 
the soil will permit. The winter crop should be sown about the first of June. Crops intended for 
storing should not be planted before this, as they may mature their growth and the tops will die 
off while still in the soil. The roots which are harvested while still in a growing condition store 
best and are of superior qualit}'. 

Harvestiug" — For convenience, the first step in gathering should be the mowihg off of the 
tops with a brier scythe or cropping off with a hoe. Digging may be facilitated by plowing a 
furrow from the row on each side, or plowing out the roots. 

Varieties — Scarlet Horn and Impi'omcl Long Orange are among the best. 

TURNIPS 

The turnip is a moisture-loving plant and does not thrive best in the hot, dry 
atmosphere of midsummer : hence it is grown almost entirely as a spring and fall 
croj:). 

Culture — The seed is sown early and the roots usually reach marketable size in eight to 
nine weeks. Turnips are often sown as a successional crop with early potatoes and cabbage. 
The seed is sown broadcast and the only important point in culture is that the plants have an 
ample supply of moisture. The soil is likely to be dry when the fall crop is sown ; hence, thorough 



98 



ANNUAL ROOT CROPS 



preparation of the seed-bed is necessary. Germination may be assisted by rolling, which brings 
the moist particles of soil into contact with the seed. Turnips are injured by freezing, and should 
be stored in a cool cellar before heavy frost. The roots are largely used as stock food and find only 
a limited demand as a table vegetable. 

Varieties — Purple Milan, Early Snowball. 

RUTABAGAS OR SWEDISH TURNIPS 

The rutabaga is identical with the turnip in its culture, with the exception that 
it requires a longer season for growth, and for the winter crop should be sown four 
or five weeks earlier. 

Varieties — Oolden Heart is a satisfactory variety. 

SALSIFY 

This is a delicious winter vegetable of the simplest culture. It is often called 

"oyster plant/' on account of 
its oyster-like flavor. The 
plant is as yet comparatively 
little known in this country, 
but should be more generally 
grown. 

Culture — Salsify is a main- 
season crop and should be sown 
early in the spring. The roots are 
not injured by frost and may be 
left in the ground over winter or 
stored. They become woody and 
unfit for use after growth begins 
the second spring, however. The 
general culture requirements of salsify are similar to those of carrots and parsnips. 
Varieties — Sandwich Island Mammoth is one of the most productive varieties. 




Fig. 33. 



Sandwich Island Mammoth, the standard variety of salsify. 
(Erwin.) 



PARSNIPS 

Culture — Sow early and give the same culture as for the carrot. The roots may be stored 
or left in the ground over winter. If stored it is best not to dig them until after heavy frost, as 
the roots seem to be improved in quality by freezing. The seed is slow in germinating and 
radishes may be sown with them as in the case of carrots. 

Varieties — Hollmo Crown is an excellent sort. 



EADISHES, ASPARAGUS 99 

RADISHES 

Culture — To produce crisp, tender roots the radish requires a cool, moist season of growth, 
similar to the turnip. Sow early in the spring, and repeat at intervals of ten days for successional 
crops. Early varieties mature in from twenty to thirty days. Winter varieties with a long, 
tapering root are grown to a limited extent ou\j. One of the best varieties of this type is the 
Black Spanish. 

Varieties — White Turnip, Scarlet Globe. 

PERENNIAL ROOT CROPS 

ASPARAGUS HORSE-RADISH RHUBARB 

The crof)o placed under this heading are not closely related botanically, and are 
arbitrarily placed in this section on account of their similar cultural requirements 
and their permanent location in the garden. Their permanency indicates the 
necessity of thorough preparation before jjlauting. An asparagus bed, for example, 
should yield profitable crops for twelve to fifteen years, provided the preparatory 
work has been properly done. In preparing the bed for any of these crops the 
ground should be deeply plowed and a heavy coat of well-rotted manure worked in. 
If the soil is not in good mechanical condition it will also be an advantage to plow 
in the fall and leave the ground in the rough over winter. 

ASPARAGUS 

Culture — Asparagus is a hardy perennial, native of Europe, propagated by division of the 
roots or by seed. If propagated from seed, which is the best method, the plants should be grown 
in the seed-bed the first year and transplanted to the permanent bed the second spring. As the 
bed will last for a number of years if the crop is properly planted, thorough preparation is of 
special importance. The land should be deeply plowed and heavily manured with well-rotted 
stable manure the fall before planting. As the stalks are the edible portion and asparagus is a 
strong feeder, it will require annual applications of manure throughout the life of the bed. 

The rows should be 6 feet apart and the plants 2 feet in the row. A convenient method of 
planting is to furrow out the rows to a depth of 8 inches, and plant in the bottom of the furrow. 
Cover the roots lightly at first, packing the soil well, however, around them, and gradually fill in 
the furrow as the stalks appear above the surface. This is a more convenient system than the 
old one of planting in solid beds, and will give good results. 

The plants should become well established before any crops are harvested, and for this reason 
it is best not to gather any stalks until the second spring after the plants are put out, and even 
then it should not be cropped heavily the first time. During the first two years frequent tillage 
is important. After the plants become well established the ground is sufficiently shaded and 
mulched to give little trouble from weeds. 



100 PERENNIAL ROOT CROPS 

The shoots should be gathered as they appear in spring and before they are more than 8 
or 10 inches in height. If allowed to grow taller than this they become woody. The stalk 
should be gathered liy reaching 2 or 8 inches below the surface, grasping the stalk with the 
fingers and breaking off with a simple twist. A case-knife is often used for this work, but it is 
not to be recommended, as the young crowns are clustered together and the blade of the knife is 
likely to sever a number of them, spoiling the future cro^j. Cropping should cease about the 
middle of June and the tops thereafter should be allowed to grow at will. After frost in the fall 
the tops are mown off and the beds well dressed with rotted manure. Asparagus is a native of 
the seashore and occasional applications of salt will stimvxlate growth. 

Varieties — Among the best varieties are Conover's Colossal and Palmetto. 

KHUBARB 

Culture — The most convenient method of propagating this vegetable is by division of roots. 
The plants may be set out in either spring or fall, planting 4 feet apart in rows 5 feet wide, in a 
rich, moist soil. No crop should be gathered until the second year after transplanting. Give clean 
culture during the summer and apply a coat of manure in the late fall. This should be plowed 
under the following spring. This mulch will prevent deep freezing, thus securing an early crop 
of stalks in the spring, and the additional supply of plant food will also aid in procuring a rapid 
growth. Rhubarb is essentially a moisture-loving plant and if properly supplied with water and 
an ample food supply, an excellent growth is insured. 

Varieties — There are apparently no new varieties of superior merit. The old standards, the 
Linneas and Victoria, are favorites. The Linneas is an early variety and less acid than the Victoria. 
The Victoria is a strong, heavy-growing sort with pink stalks and a more decided acid flavor. 

Forcing' — Rhubarb is readily forced in a warm cellar ; hence, winter crops of this delicious 
vegetable may be enjoyed by digging the roots late in the fall and storing them in a warm, dark 
cellar. The roots should be dug upon the approach of heavy frost and left above ground for a 
couple of weeks for the purpose of freezing. This freezing process is necessary, for without it the 
roots do not take on an active, vigorous growth when brought into a warmer temperature. The 
roots may be packed in closely, with only sufficient soil attached to supply moisture, and the cellar 
should be practically dark. Occasional watering may be necessary to keep them moist. The tem- 
perature should be 50° to 60°. This winter forcing is a very simple process and may be employed 
by any farmer who will comply with these conditions. Well-established roots should be used. 
Forced roots, of course, are very much weakened, and if again planted out-of-doors will not bear 
crops until the second year. 

HORSE-RADISH 

Culture — Horse-radish is a hardy perennial of the simplest culture. A rich, deep soil fur- 
nishes the best conditions for the development of symmetrical roots. Propagation is by root cut- 
tings, which should be one-half to three-fourths inch in diameter and 4 to 6 inches in length. To 
insure planting them with the crown end up it is well to make the upper cut sloping. The roots 
are used as a condiment with meats in late fall and early spring. A winter supply may be had by 
storing roots in moist soil or sand in the cellar. Grated horse-radish soon loses its strength. 
Freshly grated and neatly bottled packages find a ready sale in small towns, and one can nearly 
always find an excellent local trade for a limited supply. 



CABBAGE, BKUSSELS SPROUTS 101 

COLE CROPS 

CABBAGE CAULIFLOWER BRUSSELS SPROUTS KOHLRABI 

CABBAGE 

Cabbage is a hardy, partial-season crop. The plants are usually started in the 
hotbed or window box and set out when the second or third true leaves appear. An 
excellent seed-bed for starting the plants may be secured by burning straw or brush 
-to warm the soil and kill weed seeds ; then pulverize and sow at once. 

Culture — The early varieties are set out as soon as the state of the ground will permit, and 
do not suffer seriously even if caught by late frosts, provided the plants have been properly 
"hardened off." The seed for the fall and winter crop is usually sown about the middle of May. 
The distance for planting varies much, as some varieties produce very large heads and others small 
ones. For the general run of varieties, 2 feet apart in the row is a convenient distance. If the 
plants are spindling they should be planted deeply and side roots will be emitted along the buried 
portion of the stem. A rich soil and frequent surface tillage to conserve the moisture and a uni- 
form period of growth are the essential conditions for successful cabbage culture. If the soil 
becomes dry the heads "set." If rains follow later a second growth comes on, causing the heads 
to split and making them practically worthless for market. 

Storing' — Upon the approach of heavy frost the plants should be pulled and stored in a pile 
with the roots up. Cover with 3 or 4 inches of straw, and as winter approaches add layers of 
earth to protect from freezing and thawing. For storing purposes the heads which are not quite 
solid and mature preserve best. In storing out-of-doors, it is important to secure a site where the 
drainage is good. Ventilation should be provided by small openings through the sides of the pile. 
If the supply is to be used during the winter, a more convenient method is to store in a root cellar 
where the temperature is about 36". 

In storing cabbage it is very important that the heads should be well drained. When growing 
in the field the leaves gather the dew, so that heads for storing should be pulled and piled with the 
roots upward for several hours to allow the water to drain out of the leaves. A method of storing, 
convenient for the farmer, is to store the heads in barrels ; they will preserve better, also, if each 
head of cabbage is wrapped up in a newspaper. 

Varieties — There arc two general types of cabbage, the wrinkled and the smooth-leaved. 
The wrinkled-leaved sorts are regarded by some as superior in quality, but they are less productive 
than the common type and, hence, are not so generally grown. The smooth-leaved type may be 
subdivided into the purple-leaved and the green-leaved, or the common form. The purple-leaved 
is much prized by the Germans for pickling. The behavior of varieties of cabbage differs much 
according to local conditions. Early Jersey Wakefield is a standard early sort. Flat Butch and 
Drum Head are valuable winter varieties. 

BRUSSELS SPROUTS 

This is a member of the cabbage family witli small, lateral buds which are used 
similarly to cabbage. Its culture is practically the same as that of cabbage. 



102 SALAD CROPS 

CAULIFLOWER 

This is a variety of cabbage which has been improved by the enlargement of the 
terminal flower buds. Its cultural requirements are similar to those of cabbage. 
It requires more careful attention, however, and commands a better price on the 
market. The heads should be shaded for blancliing when two-thirds formed. A 
convenient method of doing this is to break the midrib on the large, outer leaves 
and pin them together over the head. 

Varieties — Early Dwarf, Erfurt, Giant, and Nonpareil are valuable. 

KOHLRABI 

This is another member of the cabbage family, with an enlarged, turnip-shaped 
stem, grown considerably as a winter food for stock and in a limited way as a garden 
vegetable. The tubers should be used when 2 or 3 inches in diameter, as they 
become tough and woody when older. Wliite Vienna is one of the best known 
varieties. 

SALAD CROPS 

LETTUCE CELERY CRESSES 

LETTUCE 

As usually grown lettuce is a hardy, early-season crop of the simplest culture. 

Culture — For the first crop it is ai;i advantage to sow in raised beds, as such soil warms up 
earlier. Later crops are sown in rows and thinned to 8 inches apart. The last crop is usually 
cleared by midsummer, and the ground may be used for fall turnips. If the daily supply is gathered 
early in the morning before becoming wilted by the hot sun it will be the more crisp and palatable. 
There are two general types of lettuce — head or cos lettuce, and the loose or leafy type. The cos 
variety forms small cabbage-like heads, and is a type of superior quality. It requires a longer 
period of growth, however, and greater care in culture. For the farmer's garden the loose type 
will generally be found preferable. 

Varieties — There is an endless list of good varieties which have their special adaptation to 
local conditions. Black Seeded, Simpson, and Ch'and Rapids are standard kinds. 

CELERY 

The growing of celery is largely restricted to the market gardener, for the reason 
that its cultural demands are more exacting than those of other crops. On the 
other hand, the value of the crop is greater in proportion. In fact, there is prob- 
ably no plant grown which will bring as large returns per acre as celery, and in 
most towns and villages there is an excellent demand for a limited supply. The 



CELERY, CRESSES 103 

essential requirements for successful celery growing are a rich, moist soil and early 
transplanting, that the plants may become established before the hot, dry weather 
comes on. The grower who is not able to irrigate will find bottom lands most 
satisfactory. The plants should be started in the seed-bed and transplanted once 
before being put out. The first transplanting is usually done when the second or 
third true leaves appear. The crop is usually put out about the middle of June. 

Culture — There are two general systems of culture for celery — the level culture and the 
trench system. In the trench system a furrow is laid out, a man following with a spade, to deepen 
the trench to 13 or 14 inches. The plants are then set in the bottom of this trench. At blanching 
time in the fall the trench is merely filled in. The level-culture system is similar to that practiced 
with other garden vegetables. Both systems of culture have their special points of advantage. 
In dry seasons the plants in the trench fare better on account of being protected from the dry 
winds and somewhat shaded. In wet seasons the level culture is very much more successful. 
This system involves less labor, and on the whole is probably to be preferred. The plants should 
be set out late in the evening, while it is cool, and it is also well to remove one-third or one-half of 
the top to prevent wilting. Frequent tillage should be given throughout the summer to insure a 
constant supply of moisture. 

Blanching" — Before the stalks can be used for the table the green coloring matter must 
be removed. This is brought about by any practical method which will exclude the light. For 
the early, dwarf varieties, 12-inch boards may be used, set up on each side of the row, with a strip 
across the top to hold them together. The placing of 4-inch drain tile over each plant is also a 
simple method. With the later crop, soil is often used for blanching. If soil is used, care must 
be taken to gather the stalks together before placing it around them. A convenient method is for 
a man and boy to work together, the lad working on the opposite side of the row, gathering the 
stalks, and holding them in position until the soil is filled in around them. This can not be 
completed at one time, and two or three operations are necessary. If the crop is to be stored in 
the cellar for the winter, outdoor blanching is not necessary. The roots should be taken up for 
storing upon the approach of heavy frost and placed in a cool cellar, packing a small quantity of 
soil around the roots to keep them moist. The plants may be packed quite closely together and 
if the light is excluded, blanching will be completed in three or four weeks. If the soil becomes 
dry, occasional watering may be necessary. A temperature of 50° to 60° is suitable. The crop 
may also be stored out-of-doors by covering with straw and layers of soil to protect from frost. 
This is not convenient for getting out supplies in cold weather, however, and cellar storage is 
preferable for the small grower. 

Varieties — W7dte Plume and Golden Self Blanching are good early varieties. For the main- 
winter crop. Giant Pascal, Kalamazoo, and JVeic Rose are considerably grown. Celeriac is a variety 
of celeiy with a turnip-shaped root. The enlarged root is the edible portion and is used as a salad. 

CRESSES 
Water Cress is a species of nasturtium of perennial growth, used for gar- 
nishing and salads. It is a hardy, moisture-loving plant and readily establishes 



104 



SOLANACEOUS CROPS 



itself along streams after the bed has been prepared and the seed sown. There is 
little variation in varieties of cress. 

Oarden Cress is a partial-season crop which is used to a limited extent for 
garnishing. The crop is hardy and should be sown quite early. Plants mature 
in from six to eight weeks. 



SOLANACEOUS CROPS 

TOMATO E6G PLANT PEPPER 

The plants mentioned in this group are tender and require a long, warm season 
for growth. They should be started in the hotbed or window box, and a better 
root system is secured by transplanting a second time before placing in the field. 
That the crop may have ample time to ripen it is of special importance to have 
strong, Avell-established plants to start with. This is especially true in the regions 
of the Northwest, where frost comes early. 

TOMATOES 

Culture — Where there is a choice of location, a warm soil is always preferable for the 
tomato. In a bad location or in cold, wet seasons plants set fruit poorly, the foliage takes on a 
yellow complexion, and a poor crop invariably follows. To secure fruit of good color and free 
from rot, a support of some kind is an advantage. Posts, wire netting, or any framework that 
will spread the vines and admit sunlight and air will fill the requirements. 

The yield of the tomato is materially increased by proper training. Some experiments along 
this line with which the writer was connected at the Iowa Experiment Station showed the follow- 
ing results : 

A row of untrained plants yielded 157 pounds of sound fruit and 34 pounds of rotten fruit. 
The same number of trained plants yielded 197 pounds of sound fruit and 15 pounds of rotten 
fruit. In the one case we have 20 per cent of decayed fruit and in the other only 7 per cent, which 

clearly indicates the importance of 
getting the vines up off the ground 
to prevent rot. The relative solidity 
of fruit is also an important factor in 
determining the shipping and keep- 
ing qualities. Fruits of the same size 
from different varieties vary mxich in 
weight, the heavy ones containing 
small seed chambers and a large pro- 
portion of flesh. Varieties showing 
this character of fruit invariably 
Fig. M. Speciuieu tomatoes of standard varieties. (Erwin.) keep and ship better than the lighter 




TOMATOES, EGG PLAXT, PEPPERS 



105 



fruited sorts. For example, the 
New Jersey, a light tomato, rotted to 
the extent of 27 per cent, while the 
Lorillard, a well-known heavy va- 
riety, was affected only 5 per cent. 

Upon the approach of frost the 
green fruit may be gathered and 
stored in a sunny room to ripen 

Varieties — There is a long 
list of varieties of tomatoes, many 
of which are of excellent quality. 
The ideal type of tomato is a smooth, 
medium -sized fruit with small seed 
cavities and a large proportion of 
flesh. If they are grown for market the medium-sized fruit, evenly graded, is preferable to the 
large varieties. Acme, Dwarf Champion, and Livingstone Beauty are much grown. The yellow- 
fruited sorts are more meaty than the reds. The flavor is distinctly peculiar, however, and while 
preferred by a few who have cultivated a taste for them, they are not in general demand. 




Kk;. .35. One of the favorite sorts of egg plant. (Erwin.) 



EGG PLANT 

Culture — The egg plant, like the tomato, should be started within doors. It is even more 
tender than the former plant, however, and should not be planted out until the weather becomes 
settled and warm. Well-drained soil is important, and without this or in cool seasons the crop is 
likely to be a failure. The plants are usually set 2 feet apart in the row. 

Varieties — Black Pekin and 
New York Imijroved. There are also 
small scarlet and white varieties, the 
fruit of which is used for decorative 
purposes and is of little value as a 
vegetable. 

PEPPERS 

Culture — The plants may be 
started in the hotbed or sown directly 
out-of-doors after the weather be- 
comes warm, and thinned to 13 inches 
apart. A variety collection of pep- 
pers shows a most interesting varia- 
tion in size, shape, and color. The 
seedsmen's general list of standard 
varieties is quite successful. Fig. SU. some popular varieties of peppers fur various uses. (Erwin.) 




106 • MAKING AND CAEE OF LAWNS 

CORN 

SWEET CORN POPCORN 

SWEET CORN 

The general cultural requirements of this crop are identical with those of field 
corn, for details of which see page 49. 

Culture — For corn as a garden crop, earliness and a succession are matters of prime impor- 
tance. For the early crop choose a warm soil and plant in hills. For the main-season crop many 
prefer to plant in rows. Especially for the early varieties, which are planted before the ground 
has become thoroughly warmed, should one make sure of having fresh, vigorous seed. Germi- 
nation may be hastened by soaking the seed in warm water over night before sowing. 

Varieties — Varieties vary much in the length of their growing period, and are often classed 
as early, medium, and late. The Early Cory and Early Maine are excellent varieties for the West, 
and mature in eight to nine weeks. SfoweU's Evergreen is largely grown for the main-season crop. 
Country Oentleman and Ne Plus Ultra are valuable late varieties. 

POPCORN 

This crop adds to the enjoyment of the long, winter evenings, and a few rows 
should find a place in every vegetable garden. Its consumption is increasing, and 
popcorn is becoming a crop of commercial importance in a few localities. At one 
point in Northern Iowa a single grower devotes 500 acres to popcorn, and there are 
many others of less importance. Its general culture is largely the same as that of 
field corn. As the crop is not saleable until a year or more old, good storage room 
is important. 

White Pearl is a variety which is largely grown. 

MAKING AND CARE OF LAWNS 

There is nothing that adds more to the external beauty of a home than a well- 
kept lawn. A perfect lawn is not obtained by simply seeding with certain kinds of 
grasses. A green surface may be obtained in this way in a few months under favor- 
able conditions, but a soft, velvety turf that is a delight both to view and to walk 
upon, is obtained only after the exercise of intelligent care for a period of years. 

Preparation of the Soil — It must be remembered that the lawn, when 
once formed, is to remain undisturbed ; the sward is to be permanent, and hence 
the importance of most thorough preparation of the soil. The first essential is 
thorough underdrainage. Where the process of grading has involved much filling in 
time should be allowed for settling of the soil. If grading is done with soil removed 



SEEDING AND SODDING 107 

in excavating the cellar, it should be covered over with 4 to 6 inches of good sur- 
face soil, as rich as possible in vegetable matter. If the soil is full of Aveed seed, 
it should be hoed one season, if possible, to get it cleaned up. Well-rotted manure 
should be used quite liberally and the surface put into the very finest condition 
possible, as the seeds to be used are very small and the plants, for a time, very 
delicate. 

Selection of Seed — For sections of the country to which it is adapted 
there is no better grass than the Kentucky blue grass. This is made more thrifty in 
many localities by the volunteer entrance of white clover during favorable seasons. 
Some of the fescues or timothy may be sown with it as a protection while it is 
getting a start. The blue grass Avill crowd them out when it gets a hold. Too great 
care can not be observed in obtaining pure seed, as foul seed may cause a great 
amount of annoyance and extra work. 

Seed should be sown very early in the spring to get a good start before the 
weather gets too dry and hot ; or in the early fall after the rains and cooler weather 
have arrived. The seed should be sown evenly and not covered very deep, a light 
raking with a garden rake being all that is necessary. If there is no immediate 
prospect of rain, the ground should then be rolled, to press the seeds into close con- 
tact with the earth and aid in their germination. If a good growth is not obtained 
the first season, and especially if the lawn is in an exposed situation in a severe 
climate, it should be covered the first winter with coarse manure for protection. 
This manure should be as free from weed seeds as may be. It can be left on in the 
spring until the grass starts, giving opportunity for some of its finer and more 
soluble particles to be transferred to the soil by the spring rains, when it should be 
raked off. 

Sj)ring seeding, if followed by dry, hot summers, may also be advantageously 
protected from the sun in a similar way, using hay or straw for the covering, but 
only just enough to form a shade. 

Transplanting Turf — A good turf may be obtained more quickly in this 
manner than by seeding. The ground that is to receive the turf should be well 
loosened and made smooth and even on the surface. A piece of smooth, tough sod 
of the desired grass and free from weeds should be selected from which to obtain 
the supply. Cut this turf in strips about one foot in width, two to three inches in 
thickness (great care should be taken to have the thickness uniform), and of such 
length as will make them of convenient weight to handle. These are rolled up into 
snug rolls for convenience in handling. 



108 BOOKS ON GARDENING 

The turf is then transferred to the prepared soil, closely laid, rolled, and watered. 
This method has the advantage of providing a fine turf the first season and insures 
a good, clean sod, free from objectionable plants, a result not always readily obtained 
by seeding. 

An occasional covering with manure during the winter, as above described, will 
be found of great benefit in keeping up a healthy, vigorous growth, and in giving a 
rich, green color to the grass. 



/v / ^2o/^tA-^v^v.>*^ 



PUBLICATIONS ON SPECIFIC CROPS, TRUCK FARMING, 
AND THE MARKETING OF PRODUCE 

A B C OF Potato Culture. By T. B, Terry. A. I. Boot & Co., Medina, O. (1893) . $ 0.50 

Gives in detail the methods of one of the most successful potato growers in the United 
States. 

Asparagus. By F. M. Hexamer. Orange Judd Co. , 1^ . Y . {IQOi) 50 

This is the most recent work on the subject of asparagus culture. 
Asparagus Cultutie. By Barnes and Robinson. Oeo. Houtledge & Sons, N. Y. . . .50 

Asparagus Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 61. United States Departmetit of Agriculture. 

Broom Corn and Broom. Orange Judd Cb., N. Y 50 

In addition to cultural directions, this book gives considerable information on the subject 
of broom-making, for home use and for market. 

Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Etc. By C. L. Allen. Orange Judd Co., N". Y. (1901) . . .50 

Treats of the various types and varieties of cabbage, cauhflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, 
kale, collards, and kolilrabi, paying especial attention to seed growing. 

Celery for Profit. By T. Greiner T. Greiner, La Salle, N. Y (1893) 20 

Cyclopedia of Horticulture. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co , N. Y. (4 vols.). 20.00 
The most comprehensive American work on this subject. All classes of vegetables and 
flowering plants are treated, culturally and botanically, by an acknowledged authority. Pro- 
fusely illustrated. 

Forcing Book, The. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmdllan Co., 'N. Y. (1900) .... 1.00 
The best American work on the forcing of vegetable crops. 

Gardening FOR Profit. By Peter Henderson. Ora7ige Judd Co., l:i. Y. (1897) . . . 1.50 
Peter Henderson was one of the earliest and most successful growers in America. 

Garden Making. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., l^.Y . {\m.)) 1.00 

This is a book devoted to the general improvement of the home grounds. 

Ginseng. By Maurice G. Kains. Orange Judd Co., 'Si.Y. {19Q\) .50 

Greenhouse Construction. By L. R. Taft. Orange Judd Co., ']^.Y. {1%99) ... 1.50 
Professor Taft is regarded as the American authority on greenhouse construction. 



BOOKS ON GARDENING 109 

Gkeenhouse Management. By L. R. Taft. Orange Judd Co. , 1^ . Y . (1900) . . . . |1.50 
A standard work on all the details connected with the management of greenhouse plants. 

How TO Grow Melons for Market. By Van Ornam TF, A. Burpee <& Co., 

Philadelphia 20 

How to Grow Mushrooms. By Wm. Falconer. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 

How to Grow Mushrooms. Farmers' Bulletin 53. United States Department of Agri- 
culture 

How to Make the Garden Pay. By T. Greiner. Wm. Henry Maule, Philadelphia 

(1894) 2.00 

Kitchen Garden of One Acre, A. By Van Ornam. W. A. Burpee & Co., Philadelphia .30 
Market Gardener, The Young. By T. Greiner. T Greiner, La Salle, N. Y. (1896) . .50 

Written as a guide for the beginner. 

Market Gardening and Farm Notes. By Burnett Landreth. Orange Jiidd Co., N. Y 

(1893) 1.00 

Marketing Farm Produce. Farmers' Bulletin 62. United States Department of 

Agriculture 

Mushrooms, Edible and Poisonous. By G. F. Atkinson. Andrus & Church, Ithaca, 

N. Y. (1900) 3.00 

Clearly written and with a large number of illustrations which are of value to the amateur 
in determining edible and poisonous species. 

Mushrooms, Edible and Poisonous. By J. A. Palmer Prang & Co., Boston . 2.00 

Onion Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 39. United States Department of Agriculture . . 

Onion Culture, The New. By T. Greiner. Orange Judd Co. , N. Y. (1891) ... .50 

Detailing a new method of onion culture which Mr. Greiner has found very successful and 
profitable. 

Onions: How to Raise them Profitably. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. (1887) 20 

Onions FOR Profit. By T. Greiner. T (?m7je/-. La Salle, N. Y. (1893) 20 

Open- Air Vegetables. By H. A. Dreer. H. A. Dreer & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. (1900) .25 

Plant Breeding. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co.,^.Y. {ISTi) . ..... 1.00 

a work of distinct value to every grower interested in the improvement of plants by 
selection. 

Potato Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 35. United States Department of Agriculture . . 

Potatoes for Profit. By Van Ornam. W A. Burpee & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. . . .20 
a practical pamphlet devoted to the culture of this tuber. 

Prize Gardening. By G. B. Fiske. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y. {\mi) 1.00 

A work describing the methods of a number of successful amateurs in various parts of the 
United States. 

Rhubarb Culture. By Fred S. Thompson. rewfZa^e c6 Cb., Milwaukee (1894) ... .50 

Rhubarb Culture, The Neav. By Mosse and Fiske. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. (1901) . .50 
The authoritative work on the winter forcing of rhubarb. 



110 BOOKS ON GARDENING 

Some Edible and Poisonous Fungi. Bulletin 15, Division of Vegetable Physiology. 

IPniied States Department of Agriculture fO.15 

Sweet Potato Culture. By James Fitz Oraiige Judd Co.,'N.^Y. (1886) 50 

Sweet Potatoes. Farmers' Bulletin 129. United States Department of Agriculture . 

Tomato Growing. Farmers' Bulletin 76. United States Department of Agriculture . . 

Vegetable Garden, The. Farmers' Bulletin 94. United States Department of 

Agi'iculture 

Vegetable Gardening. By S. B. Green. TFeiJ <fe Co., St. Paul (1900) 1.25 

Written in a clear, simple style; the best work on the subject for the Mississippi Valley and 
the Northwest. 

Vegetable Gardening, Principles of. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 

(1901) 1.25 

Vegetables Under Glass. By H. A. Dreer. H. A. Dreer & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. (1896) .25 
A concise pamphlet containing valuable information on winter forcing. 



Fruit Culture and Forestry 

By L. R. Taft, M. S. 
Horticulturist, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station 

THE ORCHARD SITE AND ITS PREPARATION 

Success in growing and handling an orchard should not be expected unless care 
is taken to provide a suitable location and a soil adapted to the particular kinds of fruit 
that are to be planted. In a general way it may be said that only such locations as 
are elevated above the surrounding country are adapted for orchard j^urposes. Mere 
elevation alone will not suffice, however, as a rolling tract of land, with a consider- 
able area at a lower level near by, will give better results than a plateau that has a 
much greater altitude. 

Water and Air Drainage — A rolling site is of value in providing both 
for water and air drainage, and while the former is essential — as none of our fruits 
will thrive when they have wet feet — the latter should never be overlooked. After 
severe winters it is often found that trees upon low land have been killed, while 
others but twenty feet higher up the slope have not only escaped without harm but 
produce a crop of fruit the following season. 

The danger from spring frosts is also greatest on the low land, and it frequently 
happens that on a hillside, Avhen there is a movement of the air, little harm may be 
done, while on the lower land all the blossoms are destroyed. This is due to the 
fact that cold air sinks to the lower levels almost as fi-eely as water, and if there is 
a broad plain or a large lake at the foot of the slope the effect is increased. 

Immunity from Fungous Disease — Another benefit from the use of 
a side hill rather than a hollow for orchard planting is that the fungi which prove 
so injurious to the foliage and fruit of most of our trees are fur less troublesome in 
the former place than in the latter, as the dews are not so heavy and disappear 
much more quickly. 

Orcliard Soils — While neither sand, muck, nor clay soils are adapted for 
fruit growing, there is a wide range, which embraces everything from a moderately 

(111) 



112 THE PEOPAGATION OF PLANTS 

sandy loam to a fairly heavy clay loam, that can be used for this purpose. How- 
ever, certain of these soils are rather better adapted for some fruits than for others, 
and when possible, this adaptation should be considered in selecting locations for 
orchards. The pear does best on clay loam soils, and most plums do well on heavy 
soils. Apples also do well on a strong loam soil, in which it makes little difference 
whether the sand or clay predominates. The cherry rather prefers a moderately 
heavy sandy loam, as does the peach. While peach trees make a good growth on soil 
of a sandy nature they are neither so productive nor so long-lived as on a heavier 
soil. 

A soil to be used as a nursery for growing any of these fruits should be of the 
same nature as for an orchard, but should be richer and contain a considerable 
amount of humus, so that it will not sufEer from drought. 

^Preparation for Planting: — In preparing a tract of land for planting it 
should be plowed to a good depth and thoroughly dragged. Before putting out an 
orchard it will be desirable to secure a clover sod to be turned under. If this is 
not available, a crop of Canada or cow-peas may be grown. If the land lacks in 
fertility, decomposed stable manure should be used — if possible, a year before the 
trees are to be set. It may be applied before the land is plowed for the trees, or, 
if manure can not be secured, chemical fertilizers may be mixed with the soil when 
the trees are planted. 

THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 

The more common methods of growing plants are from seeds, cuttings, grafts, 
and buds. In the case of fruit plants it is seldom that varieties can be reproduced 
from seeds ; accordingly grafting or budding is generally employed with tree fruits, 
and cuttings or layers for vine and bush sorts. 

Growing' of Stocks — In growing fruit trees it is customary to grow 
stocks, either from seeds or cuttings, upon which the improved varieties are worked 
by budding or grafting. Except in the case of the apple and peach, these stocks 
are for the most part imported from Europe. 

Apple stocks are generally obtained from Iowa or Kansas, while the peach seedlings are grown 
in the nursery and budded the same year. For the apple, French Crab seed is preferred, and 
for the pear the French stock is giving rather better results than the Japanese, although the 
largest trees can be grown from the latter. In most sections Mahaleb stocks are used for the cherry, 
the Mazzard being employed mainly for sweet varieties. The Myrabolan stock is generally 
employed for plum trees, although native American stocks are hardier and are used in the North- 



GROWING OF STOCKS 113 

west. The Marianna stocks have not been satisfactory. In some sections peach stocks are used 
lor plums, especially for Japanese sorts, but they are not in favor in regions where yellows pre- 
vail. For propagating peach trees, the nurserymen generally use seedling pits from Tennessee 
and North Carolina. They give better results than the pits of improved varieties from canning 
factories. 

For growing dwarf trees, the Angers quince is used for pears, and the Doucin and Paradise 
stocks for apples. 

To grow apple, pear^ plum, or cherry seedlings, the seed must be procured in 
the fall or early winter; after being placed in boxes in thin layers with moist sand 
between, they should be left out of doors in some shady place, to secure the action 
of frost upon them. In the spring a rich, moist soil, free from weed seeds, should 
be selected. It must be such as will bring the seedlings to a size of from one-fourth 
to one-half an inch in diameter in one year. 

The land should be thoroughly prepared and marked off into rows 3 feet apart, 
the furrows being 4 inches wide and 2 inches deep. If the seed does not show signs 
of sprouting, it should be thoroughly moistened and placed in a warm spot for 
several days. When it begins to sprout it should be scattered in the drills about 
1 inch apart each way. During the summer, the seedlings should have frequent 
cultivation and hoeing. If fungi appear upon them they should be sprayed with 
Bordeaux mixture. By fall they will be ready for digging, and after being assorted 
and trimmed they should be packed in sand, sawdust or sphagnum, until needed 
for root-grafting or for planting out in nursery rows. 

The growing of peach seedlings is. much the same, except that they are often 
planted in the fall. If dry when received, they should be placed in water for 
twenty-four hours, and then, whether for fall or spring planting, should be bedded 
out in some well-drained, sandy soil. A trench 1 foot deep and of the size required 
should be excavated, and in this the seed should be spread, the trench being filled 
with alternate layers of soil. Cover with 3 inches of soil and wet down thoroughly. 
If placed in the bed by the middle of October the seed may be planted in November, 
or it may be left until spring. For peach trees the drills should be 3^ to 4 feet 
apart and the pits should be dropped once in 2 inches. Some of the larger nur- 
series use peach-pit planters. Sometimes- the pits do not crack well when left to be 
planted in the spring, so that it will be well to examine them in the early part of 
April ; if they are not cracking the bed should be well wet down. When they 
have not cracked by planting time, which should be as soon as the ground can 
be prepared, some make it a practice to crack them with hammers, but this may 
injure the seed and better results are often obtained by using a little more seed. 



114 



THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 



Budding^ is always used for propagating the peach, phim, and cherry, but 
root-grafting -is often used for growing the apple and sometimes for the pear, 
although straighter trees can generally be grown by budding. If to be budded, 
the stocks of all kinds — except the peach, which is budded without being dug — 
are planted in nursery rows about 4 feet apart at intervals of 1 foot. Before plant- 
ing, both roots and tops should be cut back to a length of 8 inches. Seedlings 
with branched roots are generally preferred. By the middle of July the pears 
should be ready for budding, and these will be followed at intervals of ten days by 
the plums, apples, cherries, and peaches. The budding of peaches is generally 
completed by the first of September, although in good growing seasons fair results 
can be obtained even after the middle of the month, provided there are no hard 
frosts within ten days after the work is completed. 

Care of the Seedling Before and After Budding — Cultivation should 
be kept up at regular intervals up to the time of budding, in order to prevent any 
check to the growth of the seedling, which would make it impossible to bud them.^ 

Just before the trees are to be budded, the branches and leaves should be 
removed for a distance of 5 inches from the ground, and the bud should be inserted 
as near the ground as convenient, usually within 2 inches. After a week, the buds 
should be examined and, if they have not taken, another bud should be inserted. 
About this time it will be noticed tliat the wrapping material used in budding is 
beghming to cut into the stocks, and, except when the budding is done very late 
in the season, these should be cut with a knife on the side opposite the buds, as 
otherwise the stocks might be girdled. 

The following spring the stocks should be cut off with a sloping cut just above 
the bud. The slope should be at an angle of about 45°, with the lower edge at the 
back and about even with the top of the bud. Soon after growth starts, a number 
of shoots will be seen coming out from the stub in addition to the one from the 
inserted bud. All but the latter should be rubbed off with the thumb and fingers 
when about 1 inch long, and this should be repeated if necessary. Under proper 
conditions, the buds will send shoots to a height of from 3 to 6 feet the first season. 
The peach trees should be taken up in the fall for orchard planting, but the other 
trees are generally allowed to grow for one or two years more. 

Low Heads are to be preferred for pears, cherries, and plums, and to secure 



1 For notes on the mechanical process of budding, 
see page 118. 

2 Pear, plum, and cherry seedlings are often 
attacked by leaf-blight, which destroys the foliage ; the 



bark then becomes fast in the wood, so that the bud 
can not be inserted. To prevent this, make free use of 
Bordeaux mixture, especially if the weather is dry dur- 
ing June and July. 



GRAFTING 



115 



them the yearling trees should be cut back in the spring to 
a height of from 2 to 3 feet, according to the height of 
trunk desired. If they have not reached this height the 
first year, they should be trimmed up to a whip in the 
spring and topped when high enough. Before the trees 
are ready for digging, the branches on the lower portion 
of the trunks should be ]-emoved. Some do this in July 
or early August, but it will be better to take off about one- 
half of what is to be removed about the first of July, and 
the remainder the latter part of the 
month. 

Under good conditions, budded 
trees can be dug when two years old, 
but if root-grafted it generally takes 
three years to bring them to the first- 
class size. 

The growing of trees from root 
grafts is much the same as from buds, 
except that the grafts are made dur- 
ing the winter and are planted out 
the same as seedlings in the spring. 
Care must be taken that only one 
shoot is allowed to start, but this 
seldom requires much attention, if 
the grafts are planted so that the 
top bud only is above ground. 

GRAFTING 





Fig. 38. Eoot veneer p:raf t ; 
(1) stock , (2) scion , (3) 
completed graft. (Taft.) 



Fig. 37. Root whip graft : 
(1) root ; (2) scion ; (3) 
complete graft. (Taft.) 



Grafting is the art of so bringing together the parts of 
two plants that they will unite. Usually a portion of the 
last year's growth of one plant, with a length of 4 or 5 
inches, called a scion, is united with another plant, called 
the stock, either on the root, at the collar, or on the trunk 
or branches. Grafting may be employed for several pur- 
poses: (1) To reproduce non-seed-bearing varieties, or those 
that do not come true from seed ; (2) to increase the vigor 



ik; 



THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 




Fig. 39. Cleft graft: 
(1) stock; (2) scion. 
(Taft.) 



or hardiness of weak and tender sorts; (3) to bring slow-bear- 
ing kinds into earlier fruitfulness ; (4) to change varieties. 

Grafting is generally performed at the beginning of the 
season's growth. At that time dormant buds can be procured, 
and. although the union would take j)]ace more quickly after the 
sap becomes thickened, the chance of failure will be greater 
at that time, owing to the evaporation from the leaves. The 
method employed depends to some extent upon the size and 
kind, of tree upon which it is to be used. 

"Whip Graft — The form most commonly used upon small trees is 
known as the wliip or tongue graft. It is especially adapted for root-grafting 
(Fig. 37). The stock (1) is cut off at an angle, and a shaving of the bark and 
wood is removed from the longer side at the end; a tongue is then cut near 
the end. The scion is prepared by cutting off the lower end so that the 
exposed surface will be about 1 inch long (2). In the middle of this a 
tongue is cut. The tongues on the stock and scion are then fitted together 
so that the inner bark on one side of the scion will be. in contact with that on 
the same side of the stock. The graft should then be bound firmly together 
(3). This may be done either with waxed twine, paper, or cloth. These are 
prepared by dipping the string or cloth in melted grafting wax, and, in the 
case of paper, by applying the wax with a brush. The twine answers for 
root grafts, but the paper or cloth should be used where the grafts are above 
ground, unless grafting wax is used with the twine. For stem-grafting this 
method succeeds best where the stocks are from i to i inch in diameter. 
The scions should be about 3 inches long, with a bud near the end, as in 
Fig. 37, 2. 

Root Graft — When used for root grafts the scions should be 5 
inches in length and the root about 4 inches. From a good seedling, two 
stocks for root grafts can be obtained. These grafts are made during the 
winter and are then tied in bundles and packed in sand in a cool cellar. By 
spring a perfect union will have formed, and a callus will appear at the 
lower end of the root from which rootlets will soon appear after the root 
graft has been planted. 

"Veneer Graft — Although not in common use, a form known as 
veneer grafting has much merit for small stocks, either for root or stem- 
grafting. It is shown in Fig. 38, the parts being the same as in the illus- 
tration of whip-grafting. Its merit comes from the fact that cambium 
surface only is exposed, which makes it possible for a more perfect union 
to take place than when the pith is exposed, as in tongue-grafting. Greater 

care is required, however, to bring the parts into the close contact which „ , ^, , 

. , ^ ' T / ,^ . Fig. 40. Cleft graft 

must be secured in order to attaui success. completed. (Taft.) 




CLEFT-GRAFTIXCt, SIDE-GRAFTING 



ir 




Fig. 42. Side graft completed . 
(Taft.) 



Cleft Graft — When stocks that are more than f inch in diameter 

are to be grafted, it will be best to use the cleft graft shown in Figs. 39 

and 40. 

In making this graft, the stock should be cut off at right angles and 

the end pared smooth. A split to the depth of 2 inches is then made in 

the center of the stub with a grafting chisel, or heavy knife, and this 

is held open with a steel or hard wood wedge. Two scions should be 

used for each stock. These should be about 3 inches long (2), with a 

wedge at the lower end, and with one bud near the upper end and an- 
other at the upper part of the wedge. In cutting the wedge, care should 

be taken to have the sides true, and the side of the wedge that is to be 

at the outside of the stock should be slightly thicker than the other. 
The scions should be inserted as shown in Fig. 40, taking pains to 

have the inner barks in contact. If there is sufficient spring to the 

stock to hold the scions securely in place no wrapping will l)e required, 

but if not they should be wrapped the same as whip grafts. The graft 

is then completed by covering all cut surfaces, including the split at 

the sides, with either grafting wax, waxed paper, or cloth, in order to 

prevent evaporation and the drying out of the surfaces. 

This form of graft can be used either on the trunks of small trees 

or the branches of larger ones. The best success will be obtained when 

the stubs are from 1 to H inches in diameter, and none much over 2 inches should be used. 
When grafting large trees it is advisable to extend the period over several 
years, grafting about one-third at a time. 

Side Graft — The method of grafting shown in Figs. 41 and 42 is 
valuable when grafting young seedlings growing in the nursery or green- 
house. A slanting cut is made just under the bark on the stock near the 
ground, and the scion is prepared much the same as for cleft-grafting, 
except that the cut on what is to be the outside of the scion is shorter than 
the other. It is then pushed into the cut on the stock, so that the barks 
will be in contact, and then wrapped and waxed the same as the other grafts. 

The scions used for grafts of all kinds should be well-ripened, 
healthy shoots of the previous year's growth. They should be 
cut in the fall and packed in sand or moss until needed. In the 
case of hardy sorts, good results can generally be secured with 
spring-cut grafts, but it is safer to cut them in the fall. April 
and May are the months for grafting. 

The best results in grafting are obtained when stock and 
scion come.from plants of equal vigor and belonging to the same 
^'*ltocic, (l)icwMTaf2 species, but in many cases fairly good success can be obtained 




118 



THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 



between plants of nearly related species. Thus, the apple, pear, quince, thorn, 
and mountain-ash can be grafted one upon the other, but the union in most cases 
will not be so perfect or durable as between plants of the same species. 



BUDDING 

Budding differs from grafting in that only a bud with a small piece of bark 
attached is used in place of the scion. Budding can be done with the greatest 
success toward the close of the period of growth, but it should not be delayed until 
growth has stopped, as then the bark of the stock will be firmly attached to the 
wood, making it difficult or impossible to raise the biirk so that the bud can be 
inserted. Stocks from one to three years old are best for budding. 

Operation of Budding' — The scions maybe cut as soon as the buds have developed 
on the new growth, generally in July or August, and the leaves are cut off so that a little of the 
petiole remains (Fig. 43, 1). A T-shaped cut is made in the bark. Usuallj^ the vertical cut is made 
first and in making the transverse cut the knife is given a downward slope, so that a slight twist 
will loosen and raise the corners of the bark, permitting the entrance of the bud. In cutting the 
bud the knife is placed about five-eighths of an inch below the bud, and a cut is made which will 
pass upward and beneath it, taking off a shaving of the wood, to a point three-fourths of an inch 
above the bud. 

For most fruits, except the cheiTy, it will be found best to remove the wood from the bud, 
leaving only the bark. To do this, make a cross-cut one-half inch above the bud, taking pains 
to cut through the bark without cutting into the wood. Then by 
taking hold of the leaf-stalk and giving a slight twist, the bark will 
separate, leaving the wood attached to the bud-stick (Fig. 43, 2). In 
the case of a few varieties of pear, as well as the cherry, the removal 
of the wood injures the bud, and then the cross-cut should be deep 
enough to pass through the wood beneath the bark. 

If the bark on the stock was in proper condition, and the cuts have 
been properly made, there will be no 
difficulty in inserting the bud and push- 
ing it well down into place. If neces- 
sary, the corners of the bark may be 
lifted with the point of the knife blade, 
or the end of the knife handle. For 
tying the bark down upon the bud, raffia 
is most commonly used, although many 
prefer common cotton twine. Care 
^"ti^g out' helci^J^ ?m W^'l ill Pl Should be taken not to cover the bud, 

separating from the Fig. 44. Budding the stock : (1) ready and the bark should be securely bound 
barli ; (3) ready for in- for the bud; (2) bud inserted; (3) . , ,_,. ... 

sertion. (Taft.) budding completed. (Taft.) in place. (J^lg. 44.) 





MULTIPLICATION BY CUTTINGS AND LAYERING 



119 



CUTTINGS AND LAYERS 

Propagation by Cuttings — For growing the grape, currant, gooseberry, 
and many other plants, the simplest method is to use long cuttings of the hard wood. 

These should be from 8 to 10 inches 
long, with one bud close to the lower end 
and another about 1 inch from the top. 
(Fig. 45.) There will generally be three 
buds upon grape cuttings and a dozen or 
more upon most others. They may be 
planted in the fall, but it is better to make 
them at that time and after tying in bun- 
dles place them in the ground for callusing. 
One way is to place them with the butts 
uppermost, and cover with 3 inches of soil 
and enough straw to keep out frost. Early 
in the spring remove the straw, and the 
butts, being near the surface, will soon 
callus. In planting the cuttings, select moist, rich land, and, making a trench about as deep as 
the cuttings are long, place them about 3 inches apart, pressing the soil closely about them as 
shown in Fig. 45. In one or two years they will be large enough to plant out. 

Propagation by Layering — Another method of growing these plants is 
to bend down branches and bury them about 3 inches deep, leaving the ends out of 
the soil. In the case of the grape vine, it will be best to cut a tongue or remove 
some of the bark at the point to be buried. When the vines are long they may be 
bent down at several points, forming what is called a serpentine layer. Black rasp- 
berries and dewberries are layered by covering the ends of the branches in August, 
forming what are known as tip-layers. 







Fig. 45. Cuttings: Manner of planting in trench. (Taft.) 



GRAFTING WAX 

For covering all cut surfaces made in grafting, a wax made of resin, beeswax, 

and either tallow or oil should be used. 

For use during the cool days of early spring the following formula will give good results : 

Resin .' 4 parts. 

Beeswax 2 parts. 

Tallow 1 part. 

All by weight. Oil, }( P^rt, may be used instead of tallow. Melt together and when well mixed 
pour into cold water ; after greasing the hands, pull like candy. When it reaches a light yellow 
color it can be used. If to be used in cold weather it may be softened with warm water, while 
far warm weather the amount of resin should be slightly increased. 



120 



PEOPAGATIOX AND PLANTING TABLE 
TREATMENT OF WOUNDS 



When the bark upon a tree has been injured, or when large branches have been 
cut ofE, the wood exposed should be covered to keep it from drying out. The best 
treatment will be to give it two coats of lead and oil paint. This is even better 
than grafting wax for the purpose, although the latter answers well for small 
wounds. 

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING TABLE 



Name 


Average 

Planting 
Distance 


How Multiplied 


Stocks Commonly Used 




33 to 40 feet.. 1 
10 to 15 " .. j 

16 to 30 " .... 

20 to 24 " .... 
4x7to6x9 ft. 
16 to 20 feet.. I 
20 to 30 " .. S 

1 or 2 " .... 

4x6 " .-.. 
20 to 40 " .... 

6x8 " .--- 

6x8to8xl2ft. 
25 to 30 feet.... 

13 to 20 feet.-.. 
18 to 30 " .- 1 
10 to 12 " .. S 

18 to 20 " .... 

20 to 30 " .. 1 
12 to 18 " -- (" 
20 feet 


Seeds, budded or grafted seedlings . . 
See peach 




Apple, dwarf 

Apricot 


Seedlings. Doucin, crab or wild crab; 

for dwarfs. Paradise stock. 
Apricot in deep, rich soil; plum in 

cold regions, peach in mild. 


Seedlings, budding. . _ 




Suckers, root-cuttings, tip-layering.. 
Seedlings, budded 

Layering .. 




Cherry, sour 

Cherry, sweet 

Cranberry . . 


Seedlings, Mazzard stocks, Mahaleb 
for sweet and dwarf sorts; Morello 
seedlings and wild pin cherry for 
liardy stock. 








Fig 








Cuttings, layering 






Hardwood cuttings, layering 

Budded seedlings, hardwood cuttings 

Seedlings, budding 




Mulberry 


Downing stock in South; Russian 


Nectarine 


seedlings for ornamental sorts. 


Orange 


Seeds, budded or grafted, seedlings. . 
A Florida plan is to bud cuttings 
from 14 to y-i inch in diameter and 
12 inches long, place in box and 
cover lightly with earth. Cuttings 
from roots transplanted. 




Orange, dwarf 

Peach 


Seedlings, plum stocks for damp soils 


Pear, standard 

Pear, dwarf 


Seeds, budded or grafted seedlings . . 


and for dwarfs. 
Seedlings, quince for dwarfs. 




20 to 25 feet ... 
16 to 20 " .... 

8 to 14 " .... 

3 X 6 to 5 X 8 ft. 
3x6 to 5x8 " 
lx3to3x4 " 




Native persimmon. 


Plum.. 


See peach; also root-grafting or top- 
grafting ... 






Myrabolan seedlings, Chickasaw 


Quince . 


Cuttings, grafted 


seedlings, peach. 
Seedlings, fine varieties grafted on An- 


Raspberry, black . . 


Layering. 


gers stock, sometimes root-grafted 
on apple but when scion has rooted, 
apple root should be cut away. 


Raspberry, red 

Strawberry 






Runners 











Plants or Trees to Acre — Multiply together the two distances (in feet) 
at which trees are to be placed, and divide 43,560 by product. Quotient will be 
number required. 



PRUNING: WHY AND WHEN 121 

PRUNING 

The trunk and branches of trees and other plants form a sort of framework 
whereby the leaves — the lungs of the plants — are exposed to the sunshine and air, 
and upon which the fruit is borne. To secure the best results, each tree of a 
given size should have a certain amount of leaf surface, but no two trees of the same 
size have exactly the same form and number of leaves. Some are so thick that 
the sun can not reach the fruit, while the leaves are so numerous as to shade and 
smother one another ; others have but a few straggling branches, and are misshapen 
or poorly balanced. The object of pruning is to aid nature in securing an ideal 
form for the trees. In many cases the pruning is neglected while the trees are 
young, and then, when the tops get so thick that something has to be done, the 
large branches are cut away. In other cases, the trees have not been pruned at all 
and the tops are a mass of watersprouts. In most cases it will be possible to thin 
out the top of the tree by removal of small branches only, thus avoiding large 
wounds and the sun-burning of the bark, which follows when large branches are 
cut away. In the case of large trees it may be necessary to head back some of the 
branches, in addition to thinning out the surplus shoots. 

Pruning Should Begin Early — To prune a tree properly, the work 
should commence with the nursery tree. When planted, only as many branches 
should be left as will be needed for the full-grown tree. Each year after this the 
trees should be looked over and all surplus shoots that have started should be 
removed. To do this work properly, one should not only know what form of tree 
is best suited to that region, but he must know the habit of growtli of each variety, 
so that he may work in accordance with nature and when possible correct any of 
the defects that are natural to the variety. 

Season for Pruning — In a general way it may be said that the best 
time for pruning is in the spring, just before growth starts. Wounds made at 
that time will not dry out as much as when made in the fall or winter, and 
when the ends of the branches are to be cut back, there is often danger that 
they will be killed back still more by the winter, whereas there is no danger of 
this when the trees are pruned in March or April, as soon as severe freezing 
weather is over. Spring pruning is especially desirable for tender varieties, as 
it not only lessens the tendency to winter-killing, but at that time it will be 
possible to tell how much the trees or plants have been killed back and to cut 
below the injured portion. 



122 



PEUNING 



The rule, however, is not an inflexible one, and, in sections where there is little 
trouble from winter-killing, the pruning may be done at any time after the leaves 
drop in the fall and before growth starts in the spring. 

It used to be said that fall and winter pruning induced leaf growth, while summer pruning 
promoted fruitfulness. It is not strange that, if we remove a portion of the branches during the 
winter, the full vigor of the tree being turned into those that remain, a stronger growth should be 
secured than with the trees unpruned. We can then say that to improve the growth of a tree 
the pruning should be done while it is dormant. 

On the other hand, when a tree is making a strong growth without developing fruit buds it 
can often be brought into fruitfulness if it is given a severe pruning after growth is under way. 
This will result in a check to the growth and the tree will be able not only to develop and ripen 
up the remaining branches but to form fruit buds for the coming year. 

How to Prune — For young trees a strong knife answers very well, and for 
larger ones much of the work can be done with hand shears. Pruning saws are 
needed for large branches, and for some purposes some of the lever shears may 
be used. 

To secure the best results it is important that the cuts should be made at the 
right point. Fig. 46 shows the method of cutting small branches back to a bud and 
also the improper places to cut them. If cut too long a bad stub will be formed, 
while if cut too close beneath the bud, it will dry out. The proper way is to have 
the cut start on the side opposite the bud, about even with its 
tip, and, with a slant of about 30° from a cut at right angles, 
come out just above the bud. 

Even greater care should be taken in cutting off large 

branches from the trunk or other 

branches. Sometimes the cut is 

made at right angles to the branch 

that is cut. This leaves a bad stub, 

which will be unsightly and the end 

of which will heal over very slowly, 

if at all. As a rule the interior of 

the stub decays, and a cavity is 

formed in the tree. On the other 

hand, the cut is often made parallel 

with the main trunk or branch. 

This is sometimes all right, but 





Fig. 46. Cutting small branches 
back to a bud; A, cut too 
close; C, cut too long ; B, 
properly cut. (Taft.) 



Fig. 47. Cutting large 
branches: A, stub too 
long ; C, wound too 
large ; B, cut making 
small wound and leav- 
ing short stub. (Taft.) 



APPLE AND PEAE 



123 



generally there is a large shoulder at the base of the branch 
and a wound of considerable size is produced. By cutting 
at an angle of 15° or 20° from the last-named cut, the wound 
would often be reduced in size fully one-half, and it would 
not project so far but that the healing would be even more 
rapid than with a parallel cut. The method of making the 
three cuts is shown. in Fig. 47. 

PRUNING THE APPLE 

For the ordinarj' planter an apple tree should be two years old, 5 
feet high and I of an inch to 1 inch in diameter. When it is planted 
it should be pruned so that it will have about four branches (Fig. 48). 
The cross-marks in the illustration show where these branches are to 
be headed back ; all the others should be removed. When the tree has 
a strong center shoot it is often desirable to leave this nearly twice as 
long as the other branches. 

If the trees have large roots that have ragged ends or that have been 
broken in handling, they should be cut off smoothly. This applies to 
trees of all kinds. 

The head of an apple tree should not be more than 3 or 4 feet from 
the ground. They can be so pruned that it will not be difficult to work 
beneath them, and when they have low heads there is far less risk of the trunks becoming sun- 
burned; further, as the trees grow it will be easier to prune and spray them, and to thin and 
gather the fruit, than when the heads are 6 or more feet from the ground. 

During the first year the young apple trees will need but little pruning, but if the heads are 
very thick or sprouts appear on the trunk they should have attention The second and third 
springs the surplus shoots in the center of the tree should be cut out, giving particular attention 
to those that cross or grow close together. If the head is poorly balanced, an attempt should be 
made to improve its symmetry. The branches should be left longest on the southwest side, that 
they may shade the trunk, especially if that is the direction of the prevailing winds. 

When the trees are of an open habit it is a good plan to head back the branches from one- 
fourth to one-half. This will strengthen the trunk and branches. The same rules can be followed 
as the trees develop. All dead branches and the watersprouts, ' if not needed to fill up the head, 
should be cut out, and if the tree becomes too thick the thinning out process should be resorted to. 




Fig. 48. Pruning young 
apple trees. (Taf t.) 



PRUNING THE PEAR 

The pruning required by standard pear trees does not differ greatly from that for apples. The 
head should be not over 2 feet from the ground, and the top may be started with a central shoot, 
or the vase form may be used. By this method four or five branches are trained up from the main 

1 Watersnrouts are shoots (suckers) growing from tlie root or body of a tree. 



124 



PEUNING 



crotches of the tree. This is especially useful where pear-blight prevails, as if one branch is 
attacked it can be cut away with much less danger of losing the tree than when there is a central 
shoot. 

The variation in the form of pear trees is very great and the pruning should be suited to each. 
Thus, when they are of an upright habit, the upper branches should bye cut back severely, while 
the spreading trees should have the side branches cut back to buds on the upper sides. This will 
tend to throw the growth upward. There are also many sorts that make a long slender growth 
each year ; as a result the branches are weak and bend and break under a load of fruit. If headed 
back from one-half to three-fourths for a number of years after they are planted the branches will 
be strengthened. 

This heading-in is of advantage for nearly all kinds of pear trees while young, and especially for 
those that make growths annually of more than 2 feet. Severe heading-back is of advantage in 
hastening the fruitfulness of tardy-bearing varieties, such as Anjou and Sheldon. 

PRUNING THE CHERRY AND PLUM 

In starting the head of the cherry and plum the height should not be more than 2% feet, while 
1 % will be better for sweet cherries. Five or six branches may be left and these should be cut 
back one-third. These fruits do not need very much pruning other than cutting out branches that 
are too thick, although some of the strong-growing kinds may often be cut back to advantage. 



PRUNING THE PEACH 

Peach trees are always planted when one year old and range in size from whips 2 feet high to 
well-branched trees 6 feet or more in height. For most purposes 
a medium-sized tree is to be preferred, although with proper care 
the smaller trees may overtake them. 

The pruning when the trees are planted varies with the size ^^ 
of the trees. Thus, the large tree shown in Fig. 49 has developed 
into side shoots all of the buds that were first formed along the 
main stem, and if all of these are cut off close to the trunk, as 
is often recommended, the chances are that only a few weak 
shoots would be produced from latent buds that were not cut 
away in pruning. The proper way. when there are no strong 
buds on the main stem where the branches are desired, is to leave 
six or eight of the branches with one or two buds, cutting off 
all others, as well as the top of the tree at the height of perhaps 
30 inches to 3 feet. The lowest branch should be 20 inches from 
the ground. Some prefer to leave only four spurs, but, as some 
of these may not grow, a safer way is to leave a larger number 
and then cut off the surplus ones after they have started. 

When the trees have but a few side branches, with numerous 

side buds, like the smaller tree in Fig. 49, it will be better to „ , . , 

Fig . 49. Pcjic li trees IcirsTti tXnd 
remove the side branches and cut the top back to 30 inches. isniall. (Taft.) 




TEAINING THE GRAPE 



125 



The second year all but four main branches should be removed, leaving those that are evenly- 
distributed, and these should be cut back to about 18 inches. Each year after this the ends of the 
principal branches should be cut back and the others should be thinned out to keep the tree from 
becoming too thick. The amount of cutting back should be in proportion to the number of live 
fruit buds. Thus, when the trees are full of live buds it may be best to cut back some shoots 
three-fourths, whereas, if most of the buds are dead, very few fruit buds should be cut away. 

PRUNING AND TRAINING THE GRAPE 

The usual form of a grape vine when obtained from the nursery is shown in Fig. 50. It 
should be planted slightly deeper than it was in the nursery and cut back to a strong bud. 
Only one shoot should be allowed to grow. 

The next spring it should be again cut back to a strong 
bud, the length of the cane varying with its size. The 
terminal bud only should be allowed to develop and the cane 
should be tied to a stout stake as it grows. 

The next spring it should be cut back at the height of 
4 to 5 feet according to the kind of trellis to be used, and 
three buds at the top should be allowed to develop into shoots. 

Forms of Trellis — The following spring the vines 
will be ready for a trellis. The ^favorite forms are known as 
vertical and horizontal. The vertical trellis consists of 8-foot 
posts set 2i feet in the ground at intervals of 20 to 30 feet. 
These generally carry two lines of No. 10 galvanized wire, 
respectively 4 and 5i feet from the ground. The end posts 
should be strong and well braced, and the wire should be so 
arranged that the slack can be taken up when necessary. The 
other posts need not be very large if 20 feet apart, but for 30 
feet good-sized posts are desirable. 

The horizontal trellis differs in having a 2 x 6-inch strip, 
placed on edge horizontally at the top of the post, so as to 
form an arm 2 feet long, upon which three wires are carried. 

Training' the Grape — The previous year three 
shoots were grown on each vine. For the two-wire (vertical) 
trellis two of them should be placed on the lower wire and 
cut back to ten buds each. The other shoot should be cut off 
at the height of the upper wire, and a shoot from it should be 
trained in each direction. For the three-wire (horizontal) 
trellis, a shoot should be trained upon each of the wires, two 
in one direction and one in the other, and all should be cut 
back to eight buds. 
„ ^„ ,, . The KniflSn System — The simplest and most satis- 

FiG. 50. Young grape vine: a, point *v, j ^ * • • *u • ^ \x. -ir -oi 

where it should be pruned. (Taft.) factory method of training the grape is by the Knimn system. 




126 



PEUNING 



The fruiting arms are tied 
to the wires in the spring 
and the new shoots as they 
come out are allowed to 
hang down. 

To grow the best fruit, 
whatever system is used, 
the vines should be fre- 
quently cut back and 
renewed. Some prefer to 
renew all the canes each 
year, starting all of them 
from the main trunk of the 
vine, while others renew 
but once in two years. 
The two methods are 
shown in the illustrations. 
Fig. 51 shows a vine as it 
appears before pruning. 
At a, a, in the same illus- 
tration, are shown the 




Fig. 51. Training the grape : Vine on vertical trellis, showing four-arm Kniflfin 
system, a, Points for pruning for complete renewal ; 6, method of tying. 
(Taft.) 



eight cuts that would have to be made to renew the entire vine, under the four-arm Kniffin system. 

Fig. 53 shows the same vine pruned and with the arms tied to the wires. Figs. 53 and 54 illustrate 

the same points when but two arms 
are renewed and the others are cut 
back to two buds each. 

Whatever the method of pruning 
or training, one should endeavor to 
leave about forty buds upon each 
vine, and these should be as near 
the main trunk as possible. 

PRUNING THE RASP- 
BERRY AND BLACK- 
BERRY 

The stems of these fruits are 
biennial, growing one year and 
dying after fruiting the next sum- 
mer, new canes appearing from the 
roots each spring. When the new 
canes of black raspberries and 
Fig. 53. Training the grape: Four-arm system, pruned and tied. (Taft.) blackberries reach a height of from 




BUSH FEUITS, QUINCE, ORANGE 



127 




Fig. 53. Kniffin system of training the grape, showing two arms renewed 
and others cut to spurs. (.Taft.) 



3 to 4 feet, according to the va- 
riety, they should be pinched 
off. The old canes, and all but 
five or six of the new ones, 
should be removed in August. 
The following spring the side 
shoots should all be cut back 
to about 10 inches, and all 
canes that were not cut back 
the previous summer should be 
cut to 3 feet. 

PRUNING CURRANTS 
AND GOOSEBERRIES 

Five or six of the old shoots 
should be allowed to grow, 
besides two or three young 
ones. After the canes are four 
or five years old they should be 
cut out. If the growth of the 

branches is strong, they should be cut back one-half, and the tips of the new canes should be 

cut off. 

PRUNING THE 
QUINCE 

The trees should be started 
with a trunk about 1 foot long. 
When grown as a bush it is 
difficult to keep out the grass 
and weeds, while if there is a 
long trunk it is often injured 
by borers. The pruning is the 
same as for the apple, thinning 
out the head as needed and cut- 
ting back all long shoots. 



PRUNING THE 
ORANGE 

When set out, the trees 
should be headed back to a 
height of about 4 feet, and 




Fig. 54. Training the grape. Half-renewal, pruned andtied. (Taft.) 



128 ORCHARD PLANTING AND TILLAGE 

branches should be allowed to form so that the head will be about 2 feet from the ground. To 
prevent sun-scald it is often well to let all shoots above the bud grow the first year. The weaker 
branches should be cut out, if the head is too thick, and the strong shoots should be headed back. 

PLANTING AND TILLING THE ORCHARD 

After the soil has been thoroughly prepared the trees should be planted. Ordi- 
narily the spring is the best time for planting all tree fruits, but for hardy varieties, 
upon well-drained soil, the fall answers fairly well if the trees are well banked up. 
The land should be laid off, either with a corn marker, or by means of a line or wire, 
with the places at which the trees are to be set marked upon them. The first 
method is the quicker, and if one does it carefully, setting stakes at the intersec- 
tions where the trees are to stand, there will be little difficulty in correcting any 
slight errors that have been made. 

The holes should be dug large enough to receive the roots of the trees without 
bending, the surface soil and subsoil being put in different piles as taken out. The 
tree should be set a little deeper than it was in the nursery and the surface soil 
should be scattered over the roots. As soon as every space has been filled among 
the roots more soil should be added and should be firmly packed, either with the 
feet or with wooden tampers. The soil from the bottom of the hole should be 
placed on top and the surface left without packing. 

Care f.hould be taken in handling the trees that the roots be not exposed either 
to the sun or to drying winds. If they can not be planted at once they should be 
heeled in, covering the roots with moist earth, and packing it well about them. 

If the soil is fairly moist when the trees are planted, they will not require water- 
ing, but if the soil is dry and the weather hot, it will be well, after covering the 
roots with soil, to fill the holes with water, putting in the remainder of the soil after 
the water has soaked away. 

CULTIVATION FOR ORCHARDS AND FRUIT GARDENS 

For tlie first year after the trees and fruit plants have been set, some hoed crop 
can be grown between them. It should be one that requires cultivation up to the 
first of August and that does not require the stirring of the ground to harvest it 
during August or September. Tomatoes, squashes, melons, corn, and late potatoes 
answer very well. The cultivation should be frequent, and, if the weather is dry, 
the soil about tlie trees should be hoed occasionally to keep a crnst from forming. 
Most orchard trees will admit of growing some crop between them a second year, 



IMPLEMENTS, COVER CROPS 129 

but it will hardly pay after that time, except in the case of trees planted more than 
20 feet apart. The injury to the trees and the increased labor of cultivating the 
orchard will be more than the value of the catch-crop. 

Orchard Tillag^e Iniplenieiits — Under average conditions it pays to 
cultivate all kinds of fruit trees after they come into bearing. In the spring, a 
cutaway or disk-harrow is desirable ; after that a spring-tooth harrow is to be pre- 
ferred, and after the weather becomes dry a spike-tooth harrow or weeder may be 
employed. In a wet season, when the growth has been strong, young trees need 
not be worked after the middle of July. In dry seasons, and when trees are bearing 
full crops of fruit it is generally best to keep up the cultivation into August. 

Cover Crops for Orchards — At the last cultivation some cover crop 
should be sown. In some sections, when the seeding can be done in July, 15 
pounds of Mammoth or Crimson clover will bring excellent results. If not too far 
north, cow-peas and winter vetches also give good satisfaction. The former does 
best if sown in drills 2 feet apart early in July and cultivated once or twice. For 
early August, Canada peas and either barley or oats do well in the Northern States. 
After the middle of August it will be better to rely on either buckwheat or oats, 
the latter being the choice of the two. 

A good cover crop will hold the snow and fallen leaves, and will lessen the 
depth of the frost and the alternate freezing and thawing, thus often preventing 
the root-killing of the trees. All of them provide a considerable amount of 
humus, when turned under in the spring, and the clover, and other legumes leave 
in the soil a considerable amount of nitrogen that they have taken from the air. 
The use of crops like oats, that winterkill, have an advantage in serving as a 
mulch in the spring, and, by conserving the water and keeping down the weeds, 
making it possible to postpone the working of the land for several weeks longer 
than would be desirable if it were bare, or covered with some growing crop. 
After turning under one or two cover crops the soil becomes spongy and friable, 
and is much better able to resist drought than soils that have had no cover. 

Oats may be sown in August between the rows of currants, grapes, raspberries, 
and blackberries, and will serve a very useful purpose. When used among straw- 
berries the sowing should be delayed until September 1st. 

The only exceptions that are commonly met with — cases where it is not best to 
cultivate orchards — are: (1) Pears grown upon rich, moist land, and subject 
to blight ; (2) sweet cherries, on similar land, where the rank growth is injured 
by the winter ; (3) apples, under the same conditions. When trees are grown in 



180 SUBSEQUENT CARE OF THE OECHARD 

sod it will be necessary either to use stable manure or to cut the grass and leave it 
on the ground to decay, so furnishing plant food and acting as a mulch. 

FERTILIZERS FOR ORCHARDS 

If a soil is in proper condition for planting the trees, it will generally contain 
plenty of plant food to supply them until they come into bearing, unless catch crops 
have been grown between the rows, when some fertilizing material will be required. 

When it can be readily obtained, decomposed stable manure is the best fertilizer 
for fruits of all kinds. However, as farmyard manure contains a surplus of nitro- 
gen, it will often be found most economical to supplement it with some form of 
commercial fertilizer. When unleached, hardwood ashes, free from refuse, can be 
secured for $5 a ton, they will be a cheap source for potash or phosphoric acid. 
Otherwise the best source of potash will be found in muriate of potash, and of 
phosphoric acid in acid phosphate or ground bone. 

The amount of each of these required will vary with the age and condition of the 
trees and the nature of the soil. Of stable manure from 20 to 40 tons per acre could 
be used. If used with 50 to 100 bushels of wood ashes the amount could be reduced 
one-half, and the same reduction could be made for 200 pounds of muriate of pot- 
ash and 500 pounds of acid phosphate. AVhen a complete fertilizer,' to be used 
without manure, is needed for an acre of bearing orchard, good results will gener- 
ally be secured from 100 to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 200 to 300 pounds of 
muriate of potash, and 500 to 700 pounds of acid phosphate. 

The manure should be scattered broadcast during the winter, or early spring, 
and the commercial fertilizers can be sown in the spring at any time before the 
ground is worked. If sown in the winter time there would be but little loss, except 
of nitrogen from the nitrate of soda. 

SUBSEQUENT CARE OF THE ORCHARD 
THINNING FRUIT 

If from one-half to three-fourths of the fruit on a tree is removed soon after it 
sets, the remainder will often bring more than when all of it is allowed to grow. 
This is especially true of peaches and pears and, under certain conditions, of plums 
and apples. The development of the seeds is what draws most heavily upon the 
trees and the soil, and when the number of the fruits is lessened, the quantity of 
fruit produced in a given season will often be as great as when all are allowed to 

1 One which contains all the essential elements — nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash — likely to be lacking 
in the soil. 



SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND DISEASES 131 

remain, while the chances for a crop the following season will be much better. 
Even though the amount of fruit is less, its value per bushel will often be from two 
to four times as great, so that the expense for thinning will be repaid several times 
over. Really the cost of thinning is no large item, as when all of the fruit is left 
upon the trees it has to be picked in the end, and it takes longer to place it in 
baskets than to drop it to the ground. 

In the case of the peach and grape, which produce their fruit on the wood of the previous year's 
growth, much of the thinning can be done by heading back the branches and in this way lessening 
the number of fruit buds upon the tree or vine. It is never safe, however, to rely entirely upon 
this, and, if too many fruits set the smaller ones should be removed after danger of dropping is 
over. Large varieties of peaches can often be thinned with profit so that the fruits stand 8 or 10 
inches apart, when the trees have numerous branches, and 4 to 6 inches is none too much for the 
smaller kinds. 

The pear can generally be improved if only one fruit is left upon a spur, and the same is true 
of the large varieties of plums. For the smaller kinds it is better to rely upon pruning to thin the 
fruit, and then feed and cultivate the trees so that they can bring the fruit to its full size. 

Young apple trees can often be thinned to advantage, but it will seldom pay in the case of large 
trees. Raspberries, currants, and other bush fruits may be headed back to advantage, thus thin- 
ning the fruit in the same way, and with marked effect on the size. 

SPRAYING FOR INSECTS AND DISEASES' 

The injury done to fruit trees by noxious insects and fungous diseases has 
become so great that it is quite impossible to grow fruit to the best advantage with- 
out resorting to spraying to hold the various pests and blights in check. 

Under ordinary conditions the insects that do the most harm are those that eat 
the leaves or fruit, and for all such a cheap and effectual remedy is at hand in paris 
green, white arsenic, green arsenoid, and other forms of arsenic. Nearly all the 
fungi which attack fruit trees are found also upon the fruit and foliage, and can 
generally be held in check by the use of Bordeaux mixture and other preparations 
into which copper sulphate enters. Both of these remedies may be combined and 
the treatment may be made for insects and diseases in one application. 

Fungi multiply by means of spores, a simple form of seed, which germinate in moisture on 
the surface of plants and grow down into the interior. If a thin film of Bordeaux mixture, or of 
almost any salt of copper, can be spread over the foliage and fruit the germination of the spores 
can be prevented. From this it can be seen that the treatment for fungi must be preventive, as it 
will have but little effect if the fungi have gained entrance to the plants. 

The same directions for the application of insecticides and fungicides answer for all fruits 
The treatment should begin in the spring, before the buds open, using Bordeaux mixture combined 

1 For specific directions for combating the various insects and diseases injurious to fruits, see page 137 etseq. 



132 FORESTRY HINTS 

with an arsenite. As soon as the fruit has set the application should be repeated. Another treat- 
ment is generally desirable in two or three weeks, and for late varieties of apples, pears, and plums 
a thorough spraying in the latter part of July is often worth while. 

To be effectual the materials should be applied so as to reach all parts of the plants in a mist- 
like spray. For this a pump capable of maintaining a pressure of 70 pounds to the square inch is 
needed. It should be equipped with one or two lines of hose, an equal number of extension rods, 
and triple or quadruple nozzles. With a large and powerful pump three men can spray from 300 
to 1,000 trees in a day, according to the size of the trees and the convenience of the supplies. 

The first effect of spraying is to secure a healthy aud uninjured foliage through- 
out the season. This makes it possible for the trees to develop their fruit and 
make a satisfactory growth. Of little less value is the benefit to the fruit by pro- 
tecting it from insects, rot, and scab, and making it possible for it to reach its full 
size, in perfect form and without blemishes. 

RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 

Trees are often found which, although in full vigor, are unproductive. While 
this is sometimes due to location, or to the nature of the varieties, it frequently 
occurs in orchards that were at one time productive, and that seem to have proper 
surroundings. For such trees a treatment consisting of cultivation, manuring, 
pruning, and spraying, along lines previously outlined, will generally have a bene- 
ficial effect. 

If in sod, the land should be plowed, harrowed during the early part of the season, and then 
sown to some cover crop. The dead branches should be taken out and, if the heads are too thick, 
some of the smaller limbs can be removed. When the twigs are very weak, with small buds, it 
will often be well to head them back. Generally the cutting off of three or four years' growth at 
the ends of the branches will suffice, but in some instances the pruning may be even more severe. 
This treatment is especially advantageous for old apple and peach trees. For peach trees, especially, 
the severe heading back of the old trees that have been grown without pruning will often result in 
renewing them. The main branches will thicken up, making them less likely to break down, and 
a new head will be formed. If done in years when the fruit buds have been killed, nothing will 
be lost while much may be gained. Stable manure will be especially valuable for old apple orchards 
and can be used in large amounts with profit, and the same is true of wood ashes. 

Spraying should by no means be neglected. Sometimes this alone has sufficed to bring trees 
into bearing, and has secured large crops of fine fruit, but for the best results it should be com- 
bined with pruning and manuring, and in most cases the orchards should be cultivated. 

FORESTRY HINTS 

The average person is more interested in the simple care of the farm wood lot 
than in any more elaborate scheme of forestry. There are two things should always 



CAEE OF THE FARM WOOD LOT 133 

be kept out of the wood lot — fires and live stock. While fire is the more destruc- 
tive to the large trees, the stock do fully as much harm to the young growth, and 
thus both permit the grass to grow and kill the saplings needed to take the place 
of the large trees as they are cut away. 

When a tree reaches its prime it is best to cut it out and give the young trees a 
chance to develop. In doing this care should be taken not to injure the young 
growth. A judicious thinning out of the young trees will often be desirable. 
Enough firewood can generally be obtained to pay for the labor, and the trees that 
are left will be benefited. In the case of trees that will be used for timber purposes 
the removal of the lower branches will improve their quality for lumber. 

While it will not be profitable in all sections to go into the growing of a forest 
by transplanting trees or scattering seeds, there are many places where a wind- 
break can be put out to advantage, or where waste pieces of land cail be used for 
growing forest trees. While good results can often be obtained with nut-trees and 
others with large seeds, by scattering them in the fall and plowing them in, it will 
generally be most satisfactory to first grow or purchase seedlings and transplant. 
Unless a large number are needed it will be cheapest to purchase them, as they can 
be obtained at -a low price. 

The selection will depend upon the location. Thus, upon the prairies of the 
Central West, the catalpa will be found desirable, as it grows rapidly and is in 
demand for posts and ties. The black walnut also does well there. Farther north, 
the yellow locust offers many advantages for the same purpose. One good thing 
about this tree is that when cut down sprouts start and very quickly grow into a 
tree. The white pine, Austrian pine, and European larch are also promising 
timber trees. 

The trees should be planted about 5 to 6 feet apart each way upon land that 
has been plowed, and should be cultivated often enough for two or three years to 
keep a sod from forming. After that the only care will be to thin them out as they 
need it and to keep out fires and live stock. 




lO 



134 BOOKS ON FRUIT CULTURE 



PUBLICATIONS ON FRUIT CULTURE AND FORESTRY 

Apple Culture, Field Notes on. By L. H. Bailey, Jr. Orange Judd Co., JST. Y. . . $ .75 

Apple, How to Grow. Farmers' Bulletin 113. United States Department of Agriculture 

BiGGLE Berry Book. By J. Biggie. American Oarden Co., N.Y 50 

Bulbs AND Tuberous-Rooted Plants. By C. L. Allen. Orange Judd Co., 'Si. Y.' . . 1.50 

Bush Fruits. By F. W. Card. Tlie Macmillan Co.,'^.Y 1 00 

California Fruits, The, and How to Grow Them. By Edward J. Wickson. Pacific 

i?MmZ P/e.ss, San Francisco (1899) 2.50 

A special treatise on varieties and methods in local favor. 

Cape Cod Cranberries. By James Webb. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 40 

CroER Maker's Handbook. By J. M. Trowbridge! Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.00 

Country Homes, Beautifying. By J. Weidenmann. Orange Judd Co., l^i.Y. . . .10.00 

Cranberry Culture. By Joseph J. White. Orange Judd Co., IJi. Y 1.00 

Cross-Breeding AND Hybridizing. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., 'i^.Y. . . 

Dahlia, Cultivation of. By Lawrence K. Peacock. L. E. Peacock, A.cton,'^. 3. . . .30 

Evolution of Our Native Fruits, The. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. . 2.00 
Discusses at length the origin and development of the fruits peculiar to North America. 

Floriculture, Practical. By Peter Henderson. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 1.50 

Florida Fruits. By Helen Harcourt. J. P. Morton, Louisville, Ky 1 . 25 

Flower Garden, The Beautiful. By F. S. Mathews. TT. ^. Burpee cfe Cf. , Philadelphia .40 
Forest Nursery, Collection of Tree Seeds and Propagation op Seedlings. Bulle- 
tin 29, Bureau of Forestry. United States Department of Agriculture 10 

Forest Planting. By H. N. Jarchow. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 1.50 

Forestry, Outlines of. By E. H. Houston. J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia . . 1.00 

Forestry, Practical. By Andrew S. Fuller. Orange Judd Co., 'S.Y 1.50 

Forestry, Primer of (Part I.) Bureau of Forestry. United States Department of Agri- 

culttire " 35 

Forestry FOR Farmers. Farmers' Bulletin 67. United States Department of Agriculture 

Fruit Culture. By W, C. Strong. Rural Publishing Co., N. Y. ...... 

Fruit Culturist, The American. By John J. Thomas; revised by William H. S. Wood. 

William Wood & Co., N. Y. (1897) 2.50 

An elaborate treatise on fruit propagation and culture, with comprehensive notes on varieties. 

Fruit Garden. By P. Barry. Orange Judd Co., '^. Y . {\%m) 1.50 

Treats of the variorjG operations of fruit culture, the prevention of (disease and insect 
ravages, and the harvesting of the crop. 

Fruit Grower, PRACTiCikv. By S. T. Maynard. Orange Judd Co.., '^.Y 50 



BOOKS ON FRUIT CULTURE 135 

Fruit Growing, The Principles op. By L. H. Bailey. TheMacmillan Co., N. Y. (1898) |1.25 

Contains, in addition to exhaustive treatment of the subjects of the propagation and uian- 
agemeut of fruits, a highly valuable chapter on harvesting and marketing the crop. 

Fruit Packages. Edited by E. C. Powell. Rural Publishing Co., l^.Y 

Fruits and Fruit Trees op America, The. By A. J Downing. John Wiley <& Sons, 

N. Y. (1881) 5.00 

Gardening for Pleasure. By Peter Henderson. Orange Judd Cb., N. Y 1.50 

Garden Making. By L. H. Bailey, aided by L. R. Taft, F. A. Waugh, and Ernst Walker. 

TheMacmillan Co., l!^.Y.{\^Ql) 

Along with chapters on ornamental and vegetable gardening, this volume has a 45-page sec- 
tion on fruits for the home place. 

Grape Culturist. By A. S. Fuller. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.50 

Grape Growers' Guide. By Wm. Chorlton. Orange Judd Co., "i^.Y 75 

Grape-Growing and Wine-Making, American. By George Husmann. Orange Judd 

Co.,^.Y 1.50 

Grape-Growing in the South. Farmers' Bulletin 118. United States Department of 

Agriculture ^ . 

Grape-Training, American. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co.,^.Y 75 

Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters, and Live Fences, By E. P. Powell. Orange Judd 

Co., N. Y 50 

Horticulture, Annals of. By L. H. Bailey. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.00 

Horticulture, Cyclopedia op (4 vols.) By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. . 20.00 
Horticulturists' Rule Book. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., N. Y 75 

A compendium of rules, practices, recipes, and figures likely to be of use to the horticulturist. 

House Plants and How to Succeed With Them. By Lizzie Page Hillhouse. Orange 

JuddCo.,N.Y. . 1.00 

Irrigation for the Farm, Garden, and Orchard. By Henry Stewart. Orange Judd 

Co., N. Y.' 1.00 

Landscape Gardening. By F. A. Waugh. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 50 

Maple Sugar and the Sugar Bush. By A. J. Cook. A. J. Cook, Claremont, Cal. 35 

Marketing Farm Produce. Farmers' Bulletin 62. U. S. Department of Agriculture . 

Nursery Book, The. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. (1900), and Orange 

Judd Co., ^.Y 1.00 

A practical treatise on the multiplication of plants — by seedage, separation and division, lay- 
erage, and cuttage, with a full discussion of graftage, a nursery list, and a glossary. 

Nut Culture in the United States. Division of Pomology. United States Departnunt 

of Agriculture 30 

Nut Culturist, The. By Andrew S. Fuller. Orange Judd Co., 'N. Y 1.50 

Orchid Cultivator's Guide Book, The Amateur. By H. A. Burberry. Blake ct- 

MacKenzie, Liverpool, Eng 2.50 



136 BOOKS ON FRUIT CULTURE 

Ornamental Gardening for Americans. By Elias A. Long. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. $1.50 

Osier Culture. Bulletin 19, Bureau of Forestry. United States Department of Agrimlture .05 

Peach Culture. By J. A. Fulton. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 

Peach Growing for Market. Farmers' Bulletin 33. United States Department of Agri- 
culture 

Pear Culture for Profit. By P. T. Quinn. Orange Judd Cb., N. Y 1.00 

Persimmons (Experiment Station Work, XIII.) Farmers' Bulletin 107. United States 

Department of Agriculture ... 

Pineapple Growing. Farmers' Bulletin 140. United States Department of Agriculture . 

Plant-Breeding. By L. H. Bailey The Macmillan Co., N. Y . . .1.00 

Discusses variation, pollination and crossing, and the origination of garden varieties, with 
detailed directions for crossing. 

Plant Culture, Principles of. By E. S. GofE. E. S. Goff, Madison, Wis 1.00 

Plants and General Horticulture, Handbook of. By Peter Henderson. Peter 

Henderson c£- Cb., N. Y 3.00 

Plants, The Propagation of. By Andrew S. Fuller. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . 1.50 

Plums AND Plum Culture. By F. A. Waugh. Orange Judd Co., ^.Y 1.50 

Pruning Book, The. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co.,l^.Y. {\9,%1) 1.50 

Quince Culture, The. By W, W. Meech. Orange Judd Co. , 1^ . Y 1.00 

Recommended Fruits, American Pomological Society's Catalogue of. Bulletin 8, 

Division of Pomology. United States Department of Agriculture 05 

Rose, The. By H. B. Ellwanger. Dodd, Mead & Co. , 1:^ . Y 1.25 

Rose, The. By Samuel B. Parsons. Orange Judd Co., 'N. Y 1.00 

Rose Culture, Secrets of. By W. J. Hatton. W. J. Hatton, Riverdale, N. Y. . . .50 

Small Fruit CuLTURisT. By Andrew S. Fuller. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.00 

Spraying of Plants. By E. G. Lodeman. The Macmillan Co.,'^.Y. {19,QGi) . . . . 1.00 

Written as a university thesis, this treatise goes more deeply into the history of spraying 
methods, solutions, and devices than is needful for the majority of orchardists, but the bulk of 
the matter is specific and easily available. 

Strawberry Culture, A B C OF. By Terry. A. I. Boot, Medina, 35 

Strawberry CuLTURisT. By Andrew S. Fuller. Orange Judd Co., l!i. Y 25 

Survival OF THE Unlike, The. By L. H. Bailey. The Maemillan Co.,'N.Y. . . . 2.00 
A collection of evolution essays suggested by the study of domestic plants. 

Timber AND ITS Diseases. By H. M. Ward. The Macmillan Co.,^. Y 1.75 

Tree-Planting, Practical. Bulletin 127, Bureau of Forestiy. United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 05 

Trees OF THE Northern United States. ByA. C. Apgar. American Book Co., l^.Y. 1.00 

Window Flower Garden, The. By Julius J. Heinrich. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . .50 



Important Injurious Insects and Diseases Affect- 
ing- Field Crops, Fruits, and Sliade Trees ^ 

By E. S. G. Titus, M. S. 
Field Assistant to the State Entomologist of Illinois 

INTRODUCTORY 

Clean Culture — Prevention is better than cure. Scientific tillage must 
include measures calculated to minimize the ravages of insect pests and plant 
diseases. Indeed, with not a few of the farmer's worst scourges preventive meas- 
ures are the only successful ones, and in every case, when thorouglily carried out, 
they are the most efficacious. 

One has only to walk through the fields in fall to find noxious insects hiber- 
nating in the stubble, and to be convinced of the necessity of clean cultivation. 
Clean the fields thoroughly after harvest, leaving a few rubbish piles to servfe as 
shelter for hibernating pests. Burn these before winter opens, and the insects 
concealed therein will not have to be fought in spring, when the young crop is 
trying to grow. Destroy weeds and volunteer plants along with other refuse; cut 
out those around the fence corners and along the ditches, even going out into the 
road to destroy them. Burning over stubble ground is an effective precaution. 
Deep fall plowing kills many insects and buries many more, and proper drainage 
will keep other insects from multiplying. Wise tillage and careful fertilization 
often enable plants to withstand injuries that otherwise might prove fatal. 

Rotation of Crops is one of the most, if not the most, important factor in 
insect control. It should be carried on in such a manner that no single crop nor 
any two crops closely related botanically shall be grown continuously on the same 
land. 



1 The author of this section desires to acknowledge 
the kindness of Dr. S. A. Forbes, State Entomologist of 
Uliiiois, for the loan of many of the illustrations and for 
numerous other favors. He desires also to express his 
obligation to Dr. T. J. Burrill, Botanist of the University 
of Illinois, for aid in treating the subject of plant dis- 



eases; to Prof. J. C. Blair, for the loan of the photo- 
graph of a bitter-rot canker, elsewhere reproduced; and 
to Dr. George Wilham Hill, Chief of the Division of Pub- 
lications, United States Department of Agriculture, for 
Several illustrations. 



(137) 



138 PEEVENTION OF IN^SECT RAVAGES 

Insects: Life Histories and Habits — Intelligence on this subject 
is indispensable to profitable farming. It will often enable one to choose the best 
time for planting, and will aid in determining the value of trap crops and in cor- 
rectly timing all economic measures. Study the insects you combat, for it means 
economy of insecticides and time, and increased value of crops. 

Some pests, the gnawing and biting insects — as the larvae of butterflies, of 
moths, and of saw-flies, and both larvae and adults of beetles and grasshoppers — 
devour the substance of tlie leaf — the plant tissues themselves ; others, the sucking 
insects — as the young and the adults of the squash-bug, the leaf -hoppers, and the 
plant-lice — tap the plant with the beak and thus extract its juices. To kill the first 
class, aim to cover every part of the plant with an arsenical poison ; so surely cover- 
ing it that the insect must eat it and die, or leave it and starve to death. To kill 
sucking insects is a harder task. Try by spraying to drench them with some con- 
tact insecticide, as kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, or one of the scale washes. 
Each one that gets a coating of the spray over it soon smothers to death, for they 
breathe through little spiracles along the sides of the body. 

Fungi — Insects either destroy or seriously damage the plant, or else they 
impair its vitality and affect the quality of its product, be it fruit or grain. Fungi, 
however, kill the plant by choking it to death. The purpose of spraying against 
fungi is to arrest the growths that are filling up the respiratory organs of the 
plant. The secret of success is to spray thoroughly and at the right time, as in 
treatment for insects. 

Location of New Orcliards — Do not make use of old orchard ground, 
for it may be filled with disease. Set trees at a distance from the farm boundary, 
for your neighbor may not be careful to control the insects in his orchard, and you 
would suffer thereby. Be sure that the stock yoii set out is free from disease and 
insects. Better destroy it than be obliged to fight some new pest for years to come. 

Beneficial Insects — While it is always well to be on the lookout for 
injurious insects and find a way to destroy them, the farmer should also learn his 
friends among the insects. Without the beneficial insects, all our Paris green 
sprays and our methods of preventing injury by the handling of our crops would 
avail little. It would be next to impossible to prevent the enormous increase in a 
few short years of the injurious species, were they not checked by the ladybirds, 
the lace-winged flies, the syrphus-flies and the ground-beetles, to say nothing of 
the myriads of minute parasitic enemies that are continually preying on the 
remainder of the insect world. 



BENEFICIAL INSECTS 



139 




Fig. 55. Tliirteen-spolted Ladybird 
{Hrpiwdamia convergens), beetle 
ancl larva. 




Fig. 56. Twice-stabbed Ladybird (Chi- 
locorus bivulnerus), beetle and 
larva. 



The ladybirds are entitled to first rank as bene- 
ficial insects, for almost all the beetles and their larva3 
in tliis large famil}' feed on plant-lice and scale- 
insects. Two of the most efficient forms are illus- 
trated in Figs. 55 and 56. The many-spotted one 
feeds on plant-lice ; the other, on scale-insects. 

Besides these little beetles there are also the larvae 
of some flies that feed on plant-lice, one of which, 
the syrphns-fly, may be seen in Fig. 57. 

The larvae of the lace-winged flies (Fig. 58) are 
among the most voracious of feeders, and while they 
destroy many plant-lice and psyllids they by no 
means confine their attention to such small insects, 
but feed on large leaf-feeding larvae and their pupae. 
The cutworms, tomato worms, corn worms, and 
many other of the larger destructive larvae have a 
relentle, J enemy in the shape of the fiery ground- 
beetle (Fig. 59), so named because of its gold-dotted 
wing-covers. The larva of this beetle has strong, prominent jaws, and when once 
they are set in the body of a victim there is no chance of escape. They will 

attack insects several times 
their size and come from 
the combat victorious. 
Nearly all of the ground- 
beetles are beneficial. 




Fig. 57. Syri3hus-fly, adult and larva. 





Fig. 58. La,ce-\vinged Fly iChrysojia oculata): a, eggs; 6, larva; d, same, 
feeding on a pear-psylla; e, cocoon from which the adult (/) has 
emerged; £r, head of adult enlarged. (Slingerland.) 



Fig. 59. Fiery Ground-beetle (Calo- 
soma cnlidum), beetle and larva. 
(After Riley.) 



140 INSECTICIDES 

There are also many insects that lay their eggs on larvae of other species ; when 
the young hatch they work their way inside and feed on their host. More are prob- 
ably killed in this manner than in any other ; some parasites living in eggs, some in 
larvae, and others in the pupae. These parasitic insects are usually delicately formed 
in the adult state, having transparent wings and often being brilliantly colored. 

Birds and Agriculture — The relative benefit and injury received by the 
farmer from some of our common species of birds varies according to circumstances ; 
yet in some cases the injury done to growing crops, or the protection against 
insect pests afforded, is so positive as to admit of no question. Take, for instance, 
the crow-blackbirds and the crows. They work both positive injury and positive 
advantage to the farmer, and so long as they are not overabundant it is likely that 
they are worth more than they cost. If too numerous, of course their numbers 
must be reduced. Then, again, take the diet of nesting birds — almost exclusively 
animal; It has been estimated that the passerine (sparrow-like) birds of Eastern 
Nebraska, by their destruction of locusts in the nesting season, save crops to the 
value of 11,744 a day. 

The United States Department of Agriculture declares the following twenty-five 
species of birds decidedly leneficial and worthy of the fullest protection because 
of their consumption of insects, reptiles, rodents, and noxious weed seed: Marsh- 
hawk, Swainson's Hawk, Ferruginous Rough-leg, Squirrel-hawk, Sparrow-hawk, > 
Robin, Bluebird, Chickadee, House-wren, Rose-breasted Grosbeak, Song-sparrow, 
Chipping-sparrow, Tree-sparrow, Baltimore Oriole, Meadow-lark, Flicker, Downy 
Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, Black-billed and Yellow-billed Cuckoos, Barn 
Owl, and the Long-eared, Short-eared, Barred, and Screech Owls, 

Five are distinctly iiijurious and should be destroyed, viz., the English Sparrow, 
Duck-hawk, Goshawk, Cooper's Hawk, and the Sharp-shinned Hawk. 

INSECTICIDES 
ARSENICAL POISONS FOR BITING INSECTS 

Paris Green, Liondon Purple, Scheele's Green, Paragrene, and Green 
Arsenoid are all arsenicals of the same general character. Paris green is composed of arsenic, 
copper, and acetic acid ; Scheele's green is said to contain no acetic acid, is more easily applied, 
and, like Paragrene, remains in suspension longer ; while London purple and Paragrene need more 
lime added to prevent foliage burns. 

For Sprayiisig — Make a thin paste of the arsenical substance used, by adding a small quantity 
of the poison to a small quantity of water and freshly slaked lime in same quantity. Strain this 



POISONS FOR BITING INSECTS 141 

into a spray tank, and add water in the proportion of 100 to 300 gallons to each pound of poison. 
Apply the stronger mixtures to resistant foliage, such as the potato. For the apple, use 150 gal- 
lons to each pound of poison. 

Never spray fruit trees when in bloom, lest bees be poisoned. 

FoK Dry Use — For vegetables soon to be used for food, mix poison with 100 times its weight 
of plaster of Paris, flour, or lime, and apply lightlj'. Dust garden crops with poison from a bel- 
lows or bag. For low field crops, place in bags hung at ends of a pole and carry through field on 
horse or mule back. See under Cotton Worm. 

Combined Mixture: Bordeaux with Paris Green or Other Arsenite — 
Prepare Bordeaux mixture in the usual way (see Fungicides) and add to it the poison to be used. 
In this combination the Bordeaux mixture simply takes the place of the water in the Paris green 
and other arsenical solutions. 

Arsenite of Lead — Least caustic of all arsenites in its effect on foliage. Remains in 
suspension and adheres to foliage much better than ordinary arsenites. May be bought at from 
15 to 18 cents per pound. Prepare as follows : Combine 3 parts of arsenite of soda with 7 parts 
of acetate of lead, dissolving each in water separately and then pouring together. They unite 
readily and form a white precipitate. May be used much stronger than any other arsenite on 
foliage. 

Arsenite of Lime — This is a cheap insecticide, and does not burn the foliage, because 
the amount of arsenic is under perfect control. It is made by boiling together, for 45 minutes, 

White arsen ic.. 1 pound . 

Fresh stone lime 2 pounds. 

Water. -. 1 gallon. 

Put this in a tight vessel marked POISON". Before using, stir thoroughly, and use one quart of 
solution to a barrel of water. 

Poison Fixative — To make poisons adhere to cabbage, etc.: 

Pulverized resin 5 pounds. 

Concentrated lye .1 pound. 

Fish-oil, or any cheap animal oil except tallow _ 1 pint. 

Water 5 gallons. 

"Place oil, resin, and a gallon of water in an iron kettle and heat until resin is softened ; add Ij^e 
solution made as for hard soap ; stir thoroughly ; add remainder of water and boil about two 
hours, or until the mixture will unite with cold water, making a clear, amber-colored liquid. If 
it has boiled away too much, add suflicient boiling water to make 5 gallons." — Sanderson. In 
using this, dilute 1 gallon of the solution with 16 gallons of water, and add 3 gallons milk of lime 
and a quarter of a pound of any arsenite. 

Poisoned Baits — For cutworms, grasshoppers, etc.: 

Green Bait — Dip fresh clover or other green succulent vegetation in a strong arsenical solu- 
tion and distribute in small bunches about infested fields. Cover with boards or stones to keep 
moist ; renew when dry. 

Bran Mash — For grasshoppers make a mash of 1 pound Paris green, or other arsenite, and 
5 pounds bran ; sweeten with molasses. For cutworms, army-worms, etc., use 1 pound Paris 



142 INSECTICIDES 

green to 20 pounds dry middlings or bran, sweetened with 1 quart molasses and mixed with 
enough water to make moist. Drop a tablespoonf ul of this in a place, along the front of the line 
of march of army-worms ; or at the base of each plant in a field, for cutworms. 

CONTACT INSECTICIDES FOR SUCKING INSECTS 

Kerosene Enmlsioii — Dissolve 2 poimds whale-oil soap (or hard soap, or 1 quart soft 
soap) in 1 gallon boiling water, add boiling hot, away from the fire, to 2 gallons coal-oil. Churn 
rapidly by driving the liquid back into itself with a force-pump until the mixture assumes the 
consistency of cream. Use this solution diluted as desired. For 10 per cent, solution add this 
preparation to 20 gallons water. A stronger solution can be applied to plants before the buds 
open. 

Wliale-Oil Soap — This is a very effective wash against scales, slugs, and many other 
soft-bodied msects. For summer treatments use 1 pound to 7 gallons water. For winter use, dis- 
solve 2 pounds of the soap in 1 gallon water and apply hot. 

Lime, Sulphur, and Salt Wash, or "California Wash " — The most effective 
wash at present known for use against the San Jose scale. Prepare as follows : 

Lime (not slaked) 15 pounds. 

Powdered sulphur - 15 

Common salt - - 15 

Slake the lime in a small quantity of hot water in an iron kettle over a fire, and slowly sift in the 
sulphur while the lime is slaking, stirring constantly. Boil this one hour, or until sulphur is 
all dissolved ; then add the salt and boil 15 minutes longer. Put this solution in spray barrel and 
add sufficient hot water to make 50 gallons. Spray on trees hot. This wash needs to be thoroughly 
boiled, not simmered. If steam heat is available it has been recommended to put the sulphur and 
lime in a barrel and steam-boil for three or four hours, adding the salt and boiling a short time 
longer. One and a half pounds of blue vitriol may be used in place of salt. 

GASES AND OTHER INSECTICIDES 

Carbon Bisulphide — This is the cheapest and most efficient insecticide for use against 
weevils in granaries and warehouses, and against insects working on the roots of plants. The 
vapor of this liquid is not only highly poisonous but is inflammable and explosive ; hence, keep fire 
of every kind away from it. It is a colorless liquid, costing about 10 cents a pound, and can be used 
to advantage in grain bins, as the vapors are heavier than air and will work down through the 
grain. For this purpose use 1 pound to every 100 bushels of grain, make the enclosure as nearly 
air-tight as possible, and, if necessary, cover grain with blankets. Leave for not more than twenty- 
four hours, then allow air to enter. For root-lice or other root insects use a teaspoonful to a hole 
made 2 or 3 inches away from the plant, and close the hole with the foot. For ant nests put 
1 ounce in each of several holes made in the hill ; then cover with a wet blanket for ten minutes. 

Carbolic Acid Wash — To prevent egg-laying on bark. In a 6-gallon saturated solution 
of washing-soda dissolve 1 gallon soft soap, add 1 pint carbolic acid, mix thoroughly, add enough 
lime to make a thick whitewash, and stir in one-half pound of some arsenite. 



FUNGICIDES 143 

Hellebore — Apply dry for saw-flies and other soft-bodied insects. It can also be used as a 
spray — 1 ounce to 2 or 3 gallons of water. 

Pyrethriiin (Buhach, Persian Insect Powder) — Not poisonous, in ordinary quan- 
tities, to man. May be used dry by means of a bellows. Thrown about the room in this way, it 
will materially decrease the number of flies. Burn in a room to destroy mosquitoes. Used as a 
spray, 1 ounce to 3 gallons of water. 

Hydrocyanic Acid CJas — The best agent in use for disinfection or fumigation of nursery 
stock, and for destruction of some greenhouse insects and pests in dwelling houses, storehouses,' 
mills, etc. Diffuses quickly, and is a most deadly poison. 

FUNGICIDES 

Bordeaux Mixture — 

Copper sulphate (blue vitriol) 4 pounds. 

QuickUme (not air-slaked) 4 pounds. 

Water, to make 50 gallons. 

Dissolve the copper sulphate in about two gallons of water in a wooden vessel, or suspend it 
in a cheese-cloth sack in a large bucketful of cold water. When dissolved, pour the solution into 
the apparatus used for spraying and fill about one-third full of water. Slake the lime in a small 
quantity of water, and when slaked, stir, adding more water. Strain this into the copper sulphate 
solution. If lime is left after straining, pour on more water and stir it. Repeat this until nothing 
but stone lumps and sand are left. Now add sufficient water to make 50 gallons in your tank. 
Thoroughly agitate the mixture before spraying it. Bordeaux mixture should be used when fresh, 
and none should be kept over for the next spraying. 

If plants to be sprayed have very tender foliage and there is danger of burning it, use just 
half the above quantity of copper sulphate and lime to the 50 gallons and prepare as before. 
What is sometimes called the " 1 to 11 formula" is made in the same way as the first one given, 
but using only sufficient water to make 44 gallons. 

Amnioniacal Copper-Carbonate Solution- 
Copper cai-bonate __ 6 ounce.s. 

Ammonia, about , _. 3 pints. 

Water ...50 gallons. 

In a wooden pail make a paste of the copper carbonate by adding a little water. Pour into 
this the ammonia necessary to dissolve the copper carbonate — no more — and stir until all is dis- 
solved. Dilute with water and use. 

To MAKE Copper Carbonate — Dissolve 10 pounds copper sulphate in 10 gallons of water, 
and 12 pounds of carbonate of soda in same amount of water. When cool, mix the two solutions 
slowly, stirring well. Allow it to stand 13 hours and settle, then pour off liquid. Repeat this 
operation twice, and then drain and dry the resulting powder, which is copper carbonate. 

Copper-Sulphate Solution — 

Copper sulphate 4 pounds. 

Water, to make 50 gallons. 

Dissolve the copper sulphate as directed in preparation of Bordeaux mixture. This solution 
will injure foliage; use only before buds open, or on machinery and in granaries to disinfect. 



144 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS 



Formalin — 

For Oats, Wheat, etc. — One pound (1 pint) to 50 gallons water. 
For Potatoes — One-half pint to 15 gallons water. 
Corrosive Sublimate — 

Corrosive sublimate.--. _ _ _ 2 ounces. 

Water 15"4 gallons. 

This can be used for 'potato scab and disinfection purposes. Label it POISON. 

Bordeaux Wash — To paint over wounds on trees and to wash injuries to limbs. 



Make 



a mixture as for the carbolic acid wash, adding one half pound blue vitriol in place of Paris green. 



I. FIELD CROPS 

(a) IMPORTANT IXJURIOUS INSECTS 

Northern Corn-Root-worin {Diabrotica longicornis, Fig. 60) — From 
Nebraska east to the Atlantic Ocean, but injurious only from Ohio to Nebraska. 
Attacks corn in both larval and adult stages. Eggs laid in early fall, one to five 
inches deep in the soil and within a few inches of stalks. Hibernates in the egg, 
which hatches from June to August. At first eats entire root, but later burrows 
under outer layers of larger roots, thus killing them and weakening the support of 
the stalk, causing it to dwarf and produce small ears if on poor land, or to be 





Fig. 60. Northern Corn-Root-worm: beetle, larva, and piece of corn root with larva. (Forbes, 18th Illinois Report.) 

blown over when on rich loams. Larvse are nearly white, with brown head ; are 
not quite ^ inch long, and are nearly cylindrical. Adult beetle is greenish or 
greenish yellow, ^ inch long, somewhat resembling in form the striped ciicumber 
beetle. Larva? pupate near the roots in the soil, and adults emerge during the 
latter part of July and in August and feed on corn silks and pollen. Reports 
have been made of several other food plants for the beetles. 



CORN-ROOT-WORMS 145 

Treatmp:nt — So far as known these worms are never injurious after a crop of the smaller 
grains ; corn crops following these will then be safe for two years. The remedy is, therefore, 
simple — rotation . 

Southern Corii-Root-worin {Diahi^otica duodecempunctaia) — Abun- 
dant in Northern and Southern States. Attacks corn seriously only in the South. 
Well known, however, as a squash, melon, and cucumber pest, eating both leaves 
and fruit. Larva has habits very similar to those of the previous species. Beetle 
is larger than the northern corn-root-worm beetle, greenish yellow, with twelve 
black spots on wing-covers. The beetle injures corn by feeding on pollen, silk, 
and unripe kernels. 

Treatment — Same as for northern corn-root-worm. 

Wireworiiis {Drasterius elegans, Melanotus cribulomis, and other species, 
Fig. 61) — Occur in all the states, attacking grasses, grains, and potatoes. The 
wire worms are hard, cylindrical ground worms, feeding upon roots and seeds in 
the ground, and are often very destructive to crops. The beetles, which are nar- 
row, elongate, and usually dark-colored, are generally known as "snapping-beetles," 





Fig. 61. Corn Wireworm larva, and beetle. (Forbes.) 

*' spring-beetles," or "click-beetles." They lay eggs during May or June in grass 
land or wherever vegetation is plentiful, and the larvae feed upon roots. They de- 
velop slowly, taking in many cases two or three years to mature. When mature they 
pupate in the fall, and the adult stays in the pupal case until the following spring. 

Treatment — Fall plowing and rotation of crops. Do not plant corn or potatoes immediately 
after grass crops. 

Corn-root Web worm or Tobacco Stalk-worm {Cramhus caligi- 
noseUus) — Eggs laid in grass land in May or early June by small whitish or 
yellowish moths. The young larvae form loose silken tubes close to the surface of 
the soil, usually a little below, and thence burrow among the roots and feed upon 
stalk, outer leaves, and crown. The moths emerge by August, and eggs are then 
laid for another brood, which hibernate in the web over winter as partly-grown 
larvae. Corn planted on sod land is thus often seriously injured by them. 

Treatment — Do not plant on sod land, but after some other crop. Late fall plowing or 
harrowing deeply will destroy many of the larvae. 



146 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS 



Corn Root-louse (Aphis maidi-radicis) — All corn states. Presence of 
this plant-louse on corn roots can be detected by dwarfed appearance and yellowing 
and reddening of plant. Lice, found in masses on the roots, are readily recognized 
if an infested plant is pulled up. The nests of the small brown ant, if opened in 
winter, will be found to contain many of the little black eggs of this Aphis well 
cared for by these ants. On appearance of the first smartweed, the ants carry the 
newly-hatched lice to them and place them on the roots. Later, when the winged 
lice appear on these weeds and lay eggs, the ants transfer these to the corn roots. 
Late in the fall the females are housed by the ants in their nests, where the eggs 
are laid. 

Treatment — Clean culture, eradication of weeds in early spring, destruction of ant hills in 
late fall, deep fall plowing and harrowing, rotation of crops. 

Larger Cornstalk-borer {DiatrcBa saccharalis) — Maryland to Alabama 
and westward to Kansas and Oklahoma. Large white, brown-spotted caterpillars 
of this species may be found boring into stalks of corn, especially when young. 
Often occasion large loss in crop. Larvte pass the winter in their cells in the tap- 
root of the cornstalk or sugar cane, and transform in early spring. Often make 
several holes in a single stalk, weakening it and causing it to fall. 

Treatment — Where corn has been much infested in fall drag off and burn all old butts and 
stalks. Rotation will materially decrease injury by this insect. 

Corn Bill-bug^s [Sphenophorus ochreus, and others. Fig. 
62) — Corn-growing states. Attacks plant by feeding in the 
stalk when young. Adult beetles are hard oval insects with 
stout beak, by means of which they drill holes in the cornstalk 
^*,]ilTjOTi^\ near the surface of the ground and feed on the interior. As 
^ L i',l]!llli ^* the corn continues growing and these leaves open out, many 
of them have a row of elongate holes across blade, where beetle 
has punctured it while it was rolled up. Beetles feed with the 
head downward. One species (S. parvulus) has been reported 
from Maryland and Nebraska as seriously injuring blue-grass. 
Another (S. rohustus) has been known to breed in the roots of 
corn. Native food plants of this genus are the grasses, rushes, 
and sedges. 

Treatment — Where land has recently been broken from swamp or 
mil i^^rshes, plant at first some other crop than corn, such as flax or potatoes. 
Bill-bug. (Forbes.) Fall plowing of infested land will tend to drive the beetles to other fields. 




CORN EAR-WOEM, ARMY-WORMS 



U7 



Corn Ear-worm {HeUothis ar'miger) — All corn and cotton states, but not 
80 destructive in the North as in the South, where it feeds on cotton bolls. It is 
the worst pest of sweet corn, injures tomatoes to an extent, and bores into the buds 
of tobacco. Olive-green moths appear about the time corn is silking and lay eggs 
on the silk. These hatch in a few days, and the young worms at first feed on silk, 
later working their way down into the ear and feeding on the tender kernels. 
When full grown the worms go to the ground to pupate, and in case of the fall 
brood stay in the cells as pupas until spring. 

Treatment — No practical remedy if in corn or tomatoes. Thorough breaking up of corn 
ground in fall reduces their number somewhat. For remedies for attacks on tobacco and cotton 
see under insects affecting those plants. 

Arniy-worni {Leucania unipunda, Fig. 03) — All states. The true army- 
worm is a brownish-white striped caterpillar growing to 2 inches in length, the 
larva of a moth with dull-reddish fawn- 
colored wings, each fore-wing with a 
white spot. They occur every year, 
but are only rarely so abundant as to 
justify the name. When this happens, 
they advance over the country in vast 
numbers, devouring all grasses and 
grains in their track, usually feed- 
ing by night or in cloudy weather. 
When mature they enter the ground 
and pupate, and a second brood of 
worms appears in September, hiber- 
nating as larva?. 

Treatment— Clean culture; burn stubble 
in winter; when army is advancing use poi- 
soned baits, scattering them along in front of 
it ; dig ditches to entrap them and then drag 
a log through to kill them. 

Fall Army-T^^oriii, Coininon Grass-worm {Laphygma frugiperda, 
Fig. 0-4) — All states, but especially the Central and Southern. Distinguished from 
the true army-worm by dark stripes along each side, separated by a stripe of 
grayish yellow, and also by the fact that the most destructive brood appears after 
August 1st — whence its common name. The worms are especially injurious to 
lawns, but feed on all grasses and cereals and on some garden vegetables. Moths 




Fig. fi3. Army- worm: a, adult male, b, c, d, details; 
larva on grass, and pupa. (After Riley.) 



148^ 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS 




Fig. 64. Fall Army- worm : larva at left; a, adult 
moth; 6, c, color varieties. (Bruner.) 



are variable in color : hind-wings are pearly- 
white ; fore-wings range from dull grayish 
])rown to almost black, but always have a 
light spot on upper side near outer edge. 

Treatment — Same preventives as for the army- 
worm. Lawns may be rolled in early morning or 
late afternoon, or sprayed with kerosene emulsioti 
and then thoroughly washed down with water. 

Hessian Fly {Cecidomyia destructor) 
— All wheat states. Adult fly is a dark- col- 
ored, two-winged gnat (^ inch). Lays eggs 
in fall on upper surface of wheat leaf, or, 
in spring, beneath sheath. Maggots burrow 
into stem, spring brood ren\aining in portion 
above ground, fall brood going lower. Ravages are detected by stooling out of 
wheat, a darkening and broadening of leaves, absence of central stem, and a 
gradual yellowing and dying of plants. Damp springs favor tbe insect. Its 
emergence is retarded by drought, so that late sowing may fail as a remedy after 
summers with little rain. 

Treatment — Delay sowing of wheat until after time for the fly to lay its eggs. Farm 
practice as to date of sowing is in some states as follows : Northern Ohio, September 10th ; Cen- 
tral Ohio, September 25th ; Southern Ohio, October 10th ; Central Maryland, September 26th 
to October 5th ; Northern Delaware, October 1st ; New York, September 20th to 25th ; Michigan, 
September 1st or not until October 1st. Clean cultivation, burning of stubble, rotation of crops. 

Cliiiicli-bug {Blissus leucopterus, Fig. 65) — Especially in 

Southern and Central States, and west to Rocky Mountains. 

- ^ One of the most de- 

V^.j!<^^ J "^.X iP^ ..s ^ fRi structive of pests, hav- 
ing doubtless caused 
more injury to the far- 
mers of the Mississippi 
Valley than any other 
insect attacking grain. 
The adult bug is black, 
^^ itli white wings and 

Fig. 65. Chinch-bug: adultat left; a, 6, eggs magnified and natural size; c, young , i .i, f +i 

nymph; e, second stage of nymph; /, third stage; g, full-grown nymph; d, h, tWO Clai'K SpOtS Oil tllC 
j, legs ; i, beak, through which food is taken. Small lines show natural size. <. • t n 

(Riley.) lore-wmg. in all 




CHINCH BUG, WHITE GRUBS, GRASSHOPPERS 



149 



stages it lias a rank, fetid odor. Young bugs are mostly red but vary somewhat 
in the different stages. After wheat harvest it attacks first oats and then corn, 
later in the fall going to wheat again. In migrating from Avheat to corn adult 
insects rarely fly. Eggs are laid on the corn, and this brood hibernates when full 
grown, and, coming out in the spring, lays eggs on the wheat stalks. 

Treatment — Plow strip around corn field or along side from which attack is expected, 
pulverize the soil very thoroughly, and when bugs begin to migrate make a deep furrow in this 
soil with the steeper side toward the corn. On a hot day myriads of bugs will perish attempting 
to cross the fine soil, but if any seem to be getting across drag a log up and down the furrow. 
If a line of coal-tar is spread in front of their line of march and post-holes dug a foot deep every 
ten feet along the line, the bugs will turn as the line is reached and fall into the holes, where they 
may be killed. Ten per cent, kerosene emulsion may be sprayed on the bugs when they are on 
corn stalks. It will pay to use every effort possible to keep them out. 

White Grubs, May Beetles, June Bugs {Lnchnostema fusca, L. 
rugosa, and others. Fig. GO) — The Lachnosternas are widely distributed. The 
larvae are fleshy white, 
brown-headed grubs that 
feed on and sever grass roots 
and roots of - some other 
plants. The adult beetle, 
which is generally known in 
some one, at least, of its 
many species, feeds on the 
leaves of trees, eating at 
night. 

Treatment — Beetles: Luring 
by means of lights into tubs with 
kerosene and water. The only 
objection to this is that many 
beneficial insects are also de- 
stroyed.' Lavvm: Liberal sprays 
of kerosene emulsion, where they 
are affecting lawns; heavy potash fertilizers; allowing poultry to follow after the plow in break- 
ing sod ; letting hogs run in grass land before plowing ; rotation of crops , frequent breaking of 
meadow lands. 

Grasshoppers {Melanoplus species, Scliistocerca ameiHcana, and others, 
Figs. 67, G8) — Numerous species, attacking all kinds of plants. There is no need 




Fig. 66. White Grub : beetle, larva, and tip of posterior segment of 
beetle from beneath. (Forbes.) 



1 See under Codling-moth, page 172. 
11 



150 



INSECTS INJUEIOUS TO FIELD CROPS 





Fig. 67. Above — Two-striped Grasshopper, M. 
bivittatus. (After Riley.) At right— Common 
Red-legged Grasshopper, M. femurrubrum. 
At left — The Rocky Mountain Locust, M. 
spretus. (Forbes. )i 



Fig. 68. Rocky Mountain Locust : a, female ovipositing ; 
6, egg-pod removed from ground, end broken away show- 
ing eggs ; c, eggs ; d, e, egg-masses in ground ; /, egg-mass 
completed and covered. (Riley.) 

to describe these well-knowu pests. The 
figures given show in one instance the man- 
ner in which the grasshoppers deposit their 
eggs, and, in the other, three of the more im- 
portant grasshoppers. The Eocky Mountain 
locust {Melanoj)lus spretus) has often caused 
an immense amount of damage in the regions it frequents — from the Mississippi 
westward to the mountains and from Canada south to Kansas. The other two 
species are well distributed over the country. 

Treatment — Protect the insect-eating birds ; place poisoned bait near crops to be protected; 
burn over stubble ground or roll hard ground in early spring to destroy the young. Where 

fighting on a large scale is 
needed, what is known as the 
"hopperdozer," Fig. 69, will 
be found the most successful 
means of destruction. This is 
made from 8 to 10 feet long, 
a foot wide, and an inch deep, 
set on runners, and provided 
at the back with a screen a 
foot high against which the 

"hoppers" strike and fall 
Fig. 69. Large Hopperdozer. (After Riley, United States Department , , . . ., m. 

of Agriculture ) back into the pan. J he pan 




CUTWOEMS, COEN-ROOT WEBWOEM 



151 



may be made of sheet iron and the screen of canvas. Put crude petroleum in the pan and smear 
it on the canvas; then hitch a horse to the machine and draw it through the fields where the grass- 
hoppers are abundant. They will jump up and either strike the screen and fall into the pan, or 
fall directly into the latter. Many will jump out again, but if they were even slightly wet with 
the coal-oil they will die. Tar may be used instead of petroleum for the screen and coal-oil on 
water for the pan. 

Cutworms (Agrotis ypsilon, Fig. 70, A. annexa, Peridroma saucia, and many 
others) — All states. Though the life liistories of the various species vary more 
or less, their general life is the same. Adults are moths with dark fore-wings and 
light hind-wings, as may be seen in the illustration. They feed at night, sucking 
nectar from various flowers. As a rule there is but a single brood of worms in 
a season, though a few species have two. Female moths lay their eggs on stones, 
leaves, sticks, etc., wherever there is plenty of vegetation, usually in midsummer; 
larvae feed until winter, when they form an oval cell in the earth and curl in it 




Fig. 70. Greasy Cutworm, Agvi, 



Side and upper views of larva and adult moth. (Forbes.) 



until spring. Then they come forth and do the noticeable damage. They are 
rapid, voracious feeders, especially when attacking young crops. When full grown 
a cutworm is of a dull brown, gray, or greenish hite, usually marked with darker 
longitudinal lines, stripes, or dots. The head and next segment are reddish- 
brown and horny. When full grown the larvae enter the ground and jjupate, the 
moths soon after appearing and laying their eggs. Some species vary from the 
above history by laying the eggs early in spring and hibernating in the pupal or 
adult state. 

Treatment — Plow land during midsummer or early fall, the sooner after midsummer the 
better. This treatment will cause many young larvae to perish from lack of food. Thorough 
cultivation of the land in spring is good practice. The most successful remedies found have 
been the use of poisoned baits, especially the poisoned bran mash. Put this in field where plants 
are to be set, a tablespoonful near each hill, keeping chickens out of the field for several days. 

Tobacco Stalk-worm or Corn-root Webw^orm (Crambus caligi- 
nosellus) — Some of the Atlantic States. Larva works in the stalk or at base of 



152 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS 



stalk near surface of ground ; plant soon wilts and dies. Where larger plants are 
attacked, stalks may be hollowed out to'the first leaves. Several larvae often work 
on a single plant. 

Treatment — Avoid planting ou grass or timothy sod land. Advisable to put grass land in 
wheat, and then clover before tobacco. 

Horn Worm or Tobacco-worm {Protoparce celeus, Fig. 71, P. Caro- 
lina) — First named occurs in northern United States ; the other species, in the 
South. Insects hibernate in pupal state; moths emerge early in spring, laying 




Fig. 71. Northern Tobacco-worm : adult moth, above ; full-grown larva, at left ; pupa, at right. All natural 
size. (From Howard, United States Department of Agriculture.) 

eggs singly upon lower surfaces of leaves. During larval growth, which occupies 
about three weeks, they consume a great quantity of food, attaining a length of 
over two inches. Grown worm is green with oblique white stripes on the body, 
and a red or black "horn" prominent on posterior end. Moths are night-fliers, 
dark colored, with orange spots on sides of body. 

Treatment — Hand-picking is most successful. Jimson- weeds may be used as means of 
poisoning the moths. Insects visit these at night for the nectar, and a solution of cobalt (1 ounce), 
molasses (i pint), and water (1 pint) can be placed in the flowers. Spraying with Paris green has 
been found successful in Kentucky, and tests show that there is not enough poison left on the 
leaves to injure the consumer. 



TOBACCO AND COTTON WORMS 153 

Tobacco Flea-beetle {Epitrix parvula) — All tobacco states. Minute, 
oval, reddish-brown beetle. Injury is done by adult beetle, holes being gnawed in 
leaves until they sometimes appear as if peppered with fine shot. Injury especially 
severe to young plants. Larvaj have been ascertained (Chittenden) to feed on the 
roots of common nightshade and jimson-weed. 

Treatment — Bordeaux^ mixture has been found very successful. Spraying with Paris 
green will keep beetles in check on young plants. 

Tobacco Bud-worm {Heliothis armiger, H. rhexim) — The latter, south of 
Maryland ; the former, the ordinary corn-ear-worm in all tobacco states. 

Larvae of these two insects are very much alike, but the adults are readily 
distinguished. Eggs deposited in the buds ; young larvae do serious damage by 
feeding on the unrolled leaves. Later, as leaves become larger and worms grow, 
large holes are eaten, thus ruining tobacco for the best grade. The later broods 
seem to prefer unripened seed-capsules. Adult of H. rhexice is the smaller, and 
has green or dull sea-green wings, crossed by three white bands. 

Treatment — Clean cultivation ; arsenical sprays. Placing poisoned corn-meal on buds after 
heavy rains has been recommended. 

Tobacco Svick-fly {Dicyphus minimus) — Southern States only. A small 
bug that sucks sap from leaves, causing them to turn yellow, wilt, and split. 
Adult, a small black bug with long, yellowish green legs, under side greenish, and 
a yellow line just back of head. 

Treatment — Spray insects with "Nikoteen," one part to 60 gallons water, or with some 
other tobacco decoction. Clean up and burn trash in fields in fall. 

Cigarette Beetle (Lasioderma serricorne) — Southern States, and well- 
warmed warehouses farther north. Damages cigars and cigarettes by boring into 
them ; the leaves by puncturing them ; fillers and fine-cut by actual feeding and 
offensive admixture. 

Treatment — Cleanliness; whitewash woodwork, and fumigate with carbon bisulphide. 

Cotton- worm {Aletia xylina) — Cotton-growing regions of United States 
and other American countries. Hibernates as a moth and lays eggs singly on leaves 
to number of 500 or less. Larvae, gi-eenish yellow worms, slightly hairy, growing 
to be fully an inch in length. Late in summer they pupate in leaves, emerging 
in fall as dull olive-gray moths an inch or more in wing expanse. 

Treatment — Apply Paris green or other arsenite dry to leaves. Readily done by fastening a 
sack of cloth ("8 oz. Osnaburg" is recommended) containing the insecticide to each end of a pole 
and riding between i-ows on horseback, allowing it to be lightly jarred upon the leaves. The 
insect has many efficient parasites. 



154 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS 



Cotton Boll -worm, Corn Ear -worm {Heliothis armiger) — For 
description see corn insects, page 147. 

Treatment — The treatment given for the cotton-worm will aid. Late fall plowing to destroy 
pupa, trap crops of corn in the cotton field, and poisoned baits have all been used with varying 
success. Early varieties are often exempt. 

Caterpillars and Cutworms (several species of each) — These as a rule 
do but slight damage. Caterpillars may usually be destroyed by spraying operations 
recommended for cotton-worm. Cutworms can be most easily handled by means of 
poisoned baits of clover or grass. 

Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil {Anthonomus grandis, Fig. 72) — This 
dangerous enemy of the cotton-grower was imported from Mexico about 1893. It 
has spread over most of Texas and the invasion of other cotton-growing states seems 

only a question of time. Adult, a small gray 
snout-beetle {\ inch) which punctures and lays 
eggs in cotton bolls and "squares." Young 
buds usually fall off, and weevils then finish 
growth on ground. Those that remain on plant 
feed in bolls and effectually destroy their value. 
Larva matures and becomes a beetle in about 
four weeks from the egg. Hibernates as an 
adult in sheltered places in fields and timber. 

Treatment — The planting of early varieties is pos- 
sibly the most successful means of combating ; hand- 
picking of beetles and infested squares will also aid. 
Plants should be cut up or plowed out and burned as soon as possible after crop is gathered, at least 
by October, thus killing many adult beetles before they leave plants for other hibernating places. 

Plant-lice {Aphis gossyjni) — Seldom of enough importance to justify treat- 
ment, the hardy and quick growth of plants overcoming any injury. However, a 
treatment of kerosene emulsion may be given when thought necessary. 

Grasshoppers (several species) — Poisoned bran mash has been found very 
effectual in dealing with grasshoppers, and the hopperdozer might be used to 
advantage in thinning their numbers in adjoining grass or grain fields. 

Leaf-lioppers, " Sharp-shooters " — These are sucking insects and 
have been known to injure young bolls severely. Thorough. spray of strong kero- 
sene emulsion, applied not to the cotton plant but to the trees surrounding , has been 
recommended. The young of these insects live on shade trees in early spring. 




Fig. 72. Me-^ican Cotton-boll Weevil: a, beetle; 
6, pupa; c. larva. All enlarged. (From 
Howard, United States Department of 
Agriculture.) 



HOP-VINE IIN^SEOTS, GRAIN SMUTS 155 

Hop Plant-louse (Phorodon humuli) — All hop regions, attacking hop 
plants and plum-trees. This plant-louse has what is called an ''alternate food 
plant" — the plum-tree — upon which the winter and spring are passed. Louse 
spends summer on hop-vines, increasing greatly in numbers and doing much 
injury by sucking juices of plants. Lice fly to plum-trees as soon as hop-vines 
mature and die. Here eggs are laid, and in spring several generations appear and 
mature before plant-louse again returns to hop plant. The winged forms develop 
only at the time of the migrations. 

Treatment — Destroy all wild plum-trees in vicinity; spray domestic trees in fall or spring 
with strong kerosene emulsion; spray hop- vines with same and destroy vines as soon as possible 
each year. 

Hop-vine Borer {Hijdrcecia immanis) — States east of the Mississippi River. 
Eggs laid on tip of vines just as they begin to climb. Larva bores into vine and 
later drops to the ground and bores into stem, emerging under ground and feeding 
on flowing sap. Injury recognized by vine growth stopping, the tips hanging limp 
soon after pest begins its work. 

Treatment — Pinch off and burn "muffle-heads" when vines are tied, and early in June 
expose roots as far as junction of new vine with old, and apply a handful of ashes. 

For mildews affecting hop- vine apply Bordeaux mixture as often as may be necessary. 

(b) IMPORTANT DISEASES OF FIELD CROPS 

General Treatment for Grain Smuts — It has been found that the 
grain smuts, at least of barley, oats, rye, and wheat, survive the winter on the seed 
of these grains ; and hence any method whereby the spores can be destroyed with- 
out affecting the germination of the seed will be more or less successful in prevent- 
ing the disease in the fields. The following treatments are those recommended : 

Modified Hot-Water Treatment — For barley, oats, and wheat, soak seed, enclosed in 
sacks, four hours in cold water; remove, wait four hours, then dip in hot water at 133° F. for 
five minutes; dry and plant. Water should be at 130° only, for barley, according to Selby (Ohio 
Bulletin 121). 

Formalin Treatment — For oats, rye, and wheat. Sprinkle seed with a preparation of 
formalin and water — 1 pint formalin to 50 gallons water. Shovel seed over several times and 
cover vv^ith a blanket or heavy canvas for several hours. Plant soon after treatment. Grains may 
be sprayed with the formalin as they are being put in the drill, but it is not so successful a measure. 

Barley Smuts ( Ustilago Hordei, U. nuda) — All barley regions. Known 
also as the covered and the naked barley smuts. The spores of the latter may be 
scattered by the wind. 



156 INSECTS mJURIOTJS TO GARDEN CROPS 

Loose Smut of Oats ( Ustilago Avenm) — One of the most destructive 
smuts, the estimated loss from it in the United States being 118,000,000 annually. 
Where fields are affected, the spores by harvest time have often blown away to other 
heads, leaving large areas of affeeted heads entirely bare. 

Rye Smut ( Urocystis occulta) — Attacks leaves and stems. It has been rec- 
ommended that the seed be treated with hot water (127° F.) for five minutes, and 
then dried and planted, 

Loose Smut of Wheat {Ustilago Tritici) — This smut has no fetid odor 
as has the following species. It attacks both kernel and chaff, converting the 
head into a mass of spores. 

Stinking Smut of Wheat {Tilletia fcetens) — The spores of this smut 
have a fetid odor, and a small quantity of infected grain will contaminate a whole 
bin-full, often making it useless for milling. Wheat attacked by this species grows 
as tall as unaffected grain. The kernels only become diseased, and usually all in 
the head will be affected. Granaries and implements may be disinfected with 
copper sulphate (2 pounds to 10 gallons of water), articles treated being sprayed 
or washed. 

Wheat Rust {Puccima graminis, P. ruhigo-vera) — The only chance of pre- 
vention for this disease yet known is to plant resistant varieties and Tceep farm 
clean of volunteer loheat. 

Corn Smut ( Ustilago Zem) — This wide-spread disease attacks the ear, 
tassels, leaves, brace-roots and sucker-shoots, and produces the well-known black 
lumps on corn in the field. 

Tkeatment — Cutting and burning the smut bolls before they burst will aid in its control. 
Every possible means should be used to control this disease, as it seems to be constantly growing 
worse. 

II. GARDEN CROPS 

(a) IMPORTANT INJURIOUS INSECTS 

Variegated Cutworm {Peridroma saucia) — Occurs throughout the 
United States and attacks a very large variety of plants. Chittenden, in writing 
on the species in 1901, enumerated over fifty different food plants. This insect, 
in life history, is similar to other cutworms, the species usually hibernating as a 
larva, though in some localities it has been found in the winter as a pupa. The 
larvae on coming from winter quarters will attack any garden plant, several weeds, 
some field crops, and even shade and fruit trees. This species has a number of 



CUTWORMS, WOOLLY BEAR, ASPARAGUS-BEETLES 



157 




Fig. r.3. Yellow Bear: a, larva; b, pupa; c, moth. (Forbes.) 



insect enemies, and birds of several species feed upon it. The full-grown larva 

when first hatched is a decided green, with black head. It measures at maturity 

about If inches in length, and varies 

in color from very pale forms with faint 

markings to dark or dull brown mottled 

with gray or smoky black; along the 

sides of both forms, undulating velvety 

black lines. Moth has pale grayish 

brown fore-wings (darker at outer 

edges) and pale hind-wings. 

Treatment — Poisoned baits, such as 
clover or pigweed, or the poisoned bran mash. 
Apply before planting if possible. Plants may 
also be protected with paper or tin cylinders. 

Yellow or Woolly Bear (Spi- 
losoma virginica, Fig. 73) — Occurs in 
all states, being one of the commonest 
of our pests; attacks all classes of vegetation. Caterpillars, large, dark red, and 
hairy; moths have yellowish white wings and yellow spots on body. 

Treatment — Arsenical sprays and hand-picking. 

Coiiiinon Asi)aragus-beetle (Crioceris asparagi, Fig. 74) — New Eng- 
land and Middle States and as far west as Northern Illinois. Adult beetles hiber- 
nate, lay eggs on asparagus shoots early in spring, and also feed on them. Young 
larvae upon hatching are slimy greenish slugs with black dottings and black head 
and legs. They do great damage to young plants. The beetles are about ^ inch 
long ; wing-covers black, with red or yellow markings ; tliorax red, with black dots. 

Treatment — Dust young plants, when wet with 
dew, with plaster of Paris mixed with some arsenical 
poison; in hot weather simply brush larvae from 
plants; allow fowls to run in beds; leave a few shoots 
when marketing, as the beetles will deposit eggs on 
these, which then may be cut down and destroyed. 

Twelve-spotted Asparagus- 
beetle {C. duodecempimctata) — Middle 
States. Larva much like that of previous 
species; beetles red, with twelve black spots. 

Treatment — Same as for common asparagus- 




FlG 



beetle. 



Common Asparagus-beetle: a, beetle; 
j; c, newly hatched larva; d. full-grown 
larva; e, pupa. All enlarged. (Chittenden, 
United States Department of Agriculture.) 



fc. egg 



158 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GARDEN CROPS 




Fig. 75. Pale-striped Flea-beetle. 
Adult below ; larva above. 
(.Forbes.) 



Bean Ladybird, Western Bean-beetle {Epilachna 
comipta) — Western States; is working its way eastward. Serious 
enemy to bean crop in West. Beetles ^ inch long, yellowish brown, 
with four black spots on each wing-cover; larvae slug-like and 
yellow, feeding on under side of leaf ; eggs laid in same place. 

Treatment — Kerosene emulsion under-spray will help in controlling 
them ; hand-picking still better. 

Bean Leaf-beetle {Cerotoma trifurcata) — Gulf and At- 
lantic States. Somewhat resembles striped cucumber-beetle. 
Strips leaves, except midrib and larger veins. 

Treatment — Clean culture, destroying especially all tick-trefoil and bush 
clover. Arsenical spray harmless to plant if used very early ; hand-picking, in 
small gardens, successful, as beetles, larvae, and eggs may be secured. 

Destructive Green Pea-louse {Nedaroplwra pisi) — 
States north of North Carolina and east of Wisconsin. Greenish 
plant-lice, occurring in great numbers on peas, some clovers, and 
several other crops. They multiply very rapidly. 

Treatment — Brush vines and follow up with cultivator to bury the lice. 
Nuttall's Blister-beetle {Ccmtlians nuttalli) — North- 
western States. Bright metallic-green or blue-green beetle, elongate 
and narrow. Sporadic in attacks, usually most abundant after a 
grasshopper year ; feeds on all legumes and some otlier plants. 
Treatment — Larvae of this beetle feed on the eggs of the Rocky Moun- 
tain locust and do much to hold it in check; unless very destructive 
it might be good policy not to destroy them. Can be controlled by 
beating into pans of kerosene and water or by driving from the fields, 
going up and down the rows, brushing the plants always in the same 
direction. This treatment will serve for all blister-beetles. 

Pale-striped Flea-beetle {Systena tmniata, 
Fig. 75) — From New York to Colorado. Feeds on beets 
and many other plants in the garden. 

Red-headed Flea-beetle {Systena frontalis) — 
East of Rocky Mountains. Feeds on several garden plants, 
including beets, and on gooseberry, grape, and pear among 
cultivated fruits. Flea-beetles eat small ragged holes in 
the leaves of the plants on which they are feeding, and 



ENEMIES OF THE BEET AND CABBAGE 



159 



often do considerable damage. The larvae have been found feeding on the roots of 
wild plants, and in one instance in Illinois those of the pale-striped species on the 
roots of corn. The life history of the red-headed flea-beetle is not yet known. 
The adult has been found feeding on smartweed. 

Treatment — Arsenical sprays or Bordeaux mixture will control beetles when found on the 
leaves. 

Beet Aphis {Pempliigus hetce) — Washington, Oregon. Has done immense 
damage on the Pacific Coast. Insect is small, pale yellow or whitish, and covered 
with a flocculent mass much like the covering of the woolly aphis. Infests several 
wild plants; yarrows, knot-weed, and grasses — both native and introduced. 

Treatment — In districts where present do not put beets on new ground nor continue beets 
in ground where it has appeared. 

Svigar-beet Webworm, Garden Web worm {Loxostege species) — 
These webworms are widely distributed. They feed on the leaves of many garden 
plants, each individual under a separate web. 

Treatment — Arsenical sprays will control them, as the web is not dense enough to prevent 
entrance of poison. 

Zebra Caterpillar {Mamestra pida, 
Fig. 76) — Distributed over United States, and 
quite common on garden crops. Brilliantly 
marked with black and yellow and has a red 
head. Dr. Forbes has recorded about forty 
food plants for this species, including garden 
and field crops, ornamental plants, and trees. 

Treatment — Arsenical sprays will control this in- 
sect. Where arsenites are not desirable, use pyrethrum 
or hellebore, dry or mixed with water. 

Cabbage Butterfly (Pier is rapce) — Almost all the states. Larva, well 
known as a cabbage feeder, living on and in the head and eating large holes in the 
leaves ; pure green and sjjarsely hairy. Adult, a Avhite butterfly, commonly seen 
in gardens. 

Treatment — Catch butterflies with a net. Dust plants with lime, or spray young cabbage 
plants with arsenites; older ones may be treated with hellebore. 

Harlequin Cabbage-bug {Murgantia Mstrionica) — Probably occurs in all 
states, especially east of the Eocky Mountains. Brilliantly marked with red and 
yellow. In South very destructive to cabbage, sucking sap from leaves and stems. 




Fig. 76. Zebra Caterpillar. Larva and moth. 
(From Riley, United States Department of 
Agriculture.) 



160 



INSECTS INJUEIOUS TO GARDEN CROPS 




Fig. 77. Cabbage Flea- beetle: a, larva; 
b, beetle. (Riley.) 



According to most authorities there are a large num- 
ber of broods each season. They hibernate as adults. 
Treatment — Hand-picking is usually successful ; spray- 
ing with pure kerosene has also been tried with good results 
where bugs are gathered on trap crops of mustard planted 
along the gardens. 

Cabbage Flea-beetle {Phyllotreta vittata, 
Fig, 77) — Many states. Especially destructive in 
T pv| \^^H^/ larval state "to cabbage, turnips, and radishes, feeding 

1 yS^m ^L^^Pv r on roots; beetles also do appreciable damage by rid- 

dling the leaves with holes. Adult beetle about y^o 
inch long, black, with two yellowish stripes which 
are sometimes broken into four yellow spots. Hiber- 
nates in this stage in sheltered places in fields. 
Treatment — Endeavor to control beetles with arsenical or Bordeaux sprays. Destroy all 
leaves and rubbish in fields in fall. 

Striped Cucumber-beetle {DiahroUca vittata, Fig. 78) — All states east 
of Rocky Mountains. Attacks melon, cucumber, and squash vines in both larval 
and adult stages. Many other plants are fed upon by the beetle. Larvae are subter- 
ranean, feeding on roots of plants of the cucumber family; adults have been found 
feeding on beans, peas, and ripe apples, on leaves, silk, pollen and unripe kernels of 
corn, and on several wild plants. Beetle is yellow, striped with black ; hibernates. 

Treatment — Arsenical sprays must be used 
very early, as later the beetles seem to feed but little. 
Trap crops of early squash may be used to protect 
cucumber plants, or plants may be covered with 
netted boxes until they are well out of the ground; 
plants may be treated with Paris green either wet or 
dry. If trap crops are used, plant main crop as late 
as possible. 

Squash -bug {Anasa tristis) — All 
states north of Virginia; farther west extends 
more to the south. Attacks all members of 
the cucumber family and some other garden 
plants. Adult bitgs are popularly known as 

Fig. 78. Striped Cucumber-beetle: a, adult; 6, t^^j.- ,1. Knrro " Tliov qta o-vnviali hrnwn ^ 
larva; c, pupa; d, last segment of larva. (From StinK-DUgS. -Luey are grayiSll DlOWn, f 

cuK.T"'^"'^*^^'^''''^''^''"''"""'''*''^"" iiich long; young bugs are greenish, and 




STALK-BORERS, PICKLE- WORM 



161 



infest under side of leaves, sucking juices and causing them to wilt. Adults attack 
not only leaves but tender stems and lay eggs in masses on under side of leaves. 

Treatment — Place chips or other shelters near vines and collect and kill bugs found beneath 
them. Look plants over twice a week and crush brownish egg-masses on under surfaces. 

Squash-vine Borer {Melittia satyr in if or mis) — Quite widely distributed. 
Larva of one of tlie "clear-wing" moths. Eggs are laid on stems of young vines, 
especially near roots, about time vines begin to run; young larva bores into stem 
and devours interior. When full grown it is nearly or quite an inch long, tapering 
toward each end. It is whitish, semitransparent, and soft; head a dark brown. 
Larva leaves plant when full grown and forms cocoon in earth near by, where it 
remains until following season, when moths appear and lay eggs. Attacked vines 
droop, look sickly, and eventually die. 

Treatment — When vines are first attacked cut out worms and destroy, else there is no chance 
to save plant. A good preventive is to bank up young vines with earth as far out as the first 
blossoms. 

Pickle-worm {Margaronia nitidalis) — Melon and cucumber regions. 
There are two broods each year, the second wintering as pupte in ground. Moths, 
having yellowish brown wings with purple reflections, lay eggs on vines and young 
fruit in early spring ; larva eats hole in fruit, thus working its way inside. When 
full grown it is translucent, yellowish white, tinged 
with green, with yellow head, and is an inch, or more, 
long. 

Treatment — Destroy larvae by hand-picking; destroy 
infested fruit by gathering and feeding to hogs or by scalding. 

Potato stalk-borer {Trichobaris trinotata, 
Fig. 79) — Maryland, westward to Missouri and per- 
haps farther. These small ashen gray beetles appear 
early in spring and puncture base of potato stem, hol- 
lowing out small cavities and laying in each one a 
single egg. The grubs which hatch are white, with 
brown heads, and burrow in stalk or branches from 
early August to September. They pupate near the 

stalks close to the surface of the soil, and the beetles fig. 79. Potato staik-borer • « beetle- 
soon emerge and hibernate in pupal cell. tiof o^prtoitik:X^lig''iar^^^^^ 

The larva of a moth {Hydnecia nitela) also bores ^^^u^ai^z^f d'nLturai size:'^Fr^S 

infn i-<nfQfr> c!^Q^L-o " Chittenden, United States Depart- 

in LO poiaiO SCaiKS. ment of Agriculture.) 




162 



IMPORTANT DISEASES OF GARDEN CROPS 



Tkeatment — Rake up and destroy all vines in the fall as soon as potatoes are dug. Keep 
down all weeds belonging to this family — horse-nettle, jimson-weed, etc. Use fertilizer to 
enable plants to mature crop. 

Potato Flea-beetle {Ejntrix cucumeris) — Many states. "This small, 
blackish, faintly shining, minutely punctured species lives as a larva, so far as 
known, only on roots of solanaceous plants — potato, tomato, eggplant, tobacco, 
etc." (Forbes.) The beetles feed on these plants and many others, almost all 
garden plants being attacked. 

Treatment — Bordeaux mixture has proved a first-class repellant for flea-beetles of all kinds. 
Mixture may be prepai'ed in usual way, and Paris green added to destroy other pests ; coat vines 
well. 

Striped Blister-beetle {Epicauta vittata, Fig. 80) — Florida to Canada, 
and west to Rocky Mountains. Attacks principally potato and tomato, but feeds 
on many other plants, cultivated and wild. Beetle is yellow, with 
four or six black stripes, and is well known to most farmers and 
gardeners; often called "the old-fashioned potato-beetle." Larva 
probably feeds on grasshoppers' eggs. 

Treatment — Arsenites may be used, or the beetles may be driven from 
the fields as described under iSTuttall's blister-beetle. 

Colorado Potato-beetle {Leptinotarsi decemlineata) — 
All states; the worst of potato pests. Stol^t, yellowish beetle, with 
ten black stripes on wing-covers; lays orange-colored eggs beneath 
leaves. The reddish black-marked larvae are voracious feeders. 
Several generations each year ; hibernates in both pupal and adult 
stages. 

Treatment — Hand-picking of eggs and insects. Thorough Paris-green spraying. Begin 
treating the pests as soon as they appear, and keep at it. 




Fig. 80. Striped 
Blister-beetle. 
(Bruner.) 



(b) IMPORTANT DISEASES OF GARDEN CROPS 

Asparagus Rust {Piiccinia Asparagi) — Generally distributed in Europe, 
but only recently reported from this country. Badly infested fields mature plants 
unusually early and the plants have a brown hne, as if sapped by insects or injured 
by frost. Rusted plants appear to have the skin blistered, and are brown beneath 
the ruptures, but other stages of this rust also occur in the fields. 

Treatment — Bordeaux sprays appear to reduce affection about one quarter. (Halsted.) 
Burning rusted brush in fall is recommended. Mow field off clean, and burn all refuse and rubbish 
in the fall. 



ROTS, SCAB, MILDEW, WILT DISEASES 163 

Brown Rot of Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Turnips {Pseudomonas 
campestris) — Eastern and Central States. Disease caused by bacterium which 
enters through wounds, is spread by transplanting from infested fields, or is carried 
by insects to plants. Diseased heads dwarf, rot, turn brown in places, and give 
oif an offensive odor ; stems often affected. Losses from this disease are at times 
large. 

Treatment — Prevention is the only recourse. Keep the insects down ; plant on new land and 
only from healthy seed-beds ; avoid stable manures contaminated with cabbage refuse ; keep tools 
clean ; keep animals out of infested fields ; destroy all mustard weeds ; remove and destroy 
aifected plants. 

Beet Root-rot {Ehizoctonia betce) — Some Eastern States. Leaves of attacked 
plants blacken at base and later fall ; disease then works into the crown and root, 
causing them to crack ; later they begin rotting. Whether this disease or another 
introduced through the cracks causes the rotting is not known. 

Treatment — B. M. Duggar has recommended applying 60 to 70 bushels of air-slaked lime 
to acre before planting. He states that rot seems to work on soils lacking sufficient limy content. 

Potato Scab — A well-known disease of the potato tuber. Organisms caus- 
ing it usually found in soil on which jDotatoes have been grown the previous year. 

Treatment — Soak seed potatoes in formalin solution (1 pint to 30 gallons water) for two or 
two and a half hours ; then dry, and plant on ground free from scab. 

Bacterial Rot of Onions, *^ Slippery Onions" — Outer or inner 
layers rot and leave contiguous layers sound. Damp or uet weather seems to favor 
disease ; hence, clean cultivation, thorough drainage, and dry storage will aid in 
preventing it. 

Downy Mildew^ {Plasmopora Culensis) — Occurs in many states, but often 
not until late in the year. Attacks cucumbers and squashes. Angular yellowish 
spots appear on leaves, which turn yellow rapidly and die as if by frost. The 
mildew spreads very rapidly through the fields. 

Treatment — Repeated applications of Bordeaux mixture at intervals of 8 to 10 days are 
recommended by Selby 

Dodder of Cucumber and otlier Plants — Affected piants should be 
destroyed immediately itpon appearance of the parasite. 

Wilt Diseases — The various wilt diseases affecting cucumbers, melons, 
squashes, etc., are difficult to handle. Gathering and destroying infested vines, 
and waging successful war against insects, especially squash-bugs and cucumber 
beetles, is good practice. 



164 



INSECTS mJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS 



III. GRAINS AND SEEDS IN STORAGE 



IMPORTANT INJURIOUS INSECTS 

Some of the insects affecting stored grains begin their life history in the field ; 
others, in the granary or warehouse. Preventive and remedial measures generally 
applicable are as follows : 

General Treatment — Harvest as soon as grain is ripe ,' clean and fumigate granary before 
using ; quarantine and fumigate infested grain ; make bins as nearly air-tight as possible and fumi- 
gate with bisulphide of carbon. Heating seed-wheat to a temperature of 130° to 150° will destroy 
moths without injuring the germinating qualities of the seed. 

Aiigoumois Grain-inotli {Sitotroga cerecdella, Fig. 81) — Very common 
throughout South and gradually working north ;4-eported from Ohio and Pennsyl- 
vania. By far the worst granary 
pest known. The destructive 
caterpillar of tliis moth chiefly 
attacks corn (Fig. 82) and wheat. 
Eggs are laid in field on grains or 
in bin on the stored products. Moth 
is dull grayish brown with wing- 
spread of about ^ inch; caterpillar 
grows to be ^ inch long and is white 
with a yellow head. 

Iiidiaii-Meal-inoth {Plodia 

interpundella) — All states. The 

omnivorous whitish caterpillar of 

this gray or reddish brown moth 

lives in Indian meal and other 

cereals, dried fruits, English walnuts, 

etc. Kernels o'f grain are spun together 

with a web. 

Mediterranean Flovir-nioth 
{Ephestia huliniella) — Occurs along 
Atlantic coast and in Gulf States, Min- 
nesota, Colorado, California, ^New Mex- 
FiG. 82. Pop corn showing work of Angoumois Grain- ico, and doubtlcss othcr states ; rapidly 
Agricuitum)" ^"'''' ^"''^''^ ^'^"^^ Department of gp^.^ading. iMoth has leaden gray fore- 




Fig. 81. Angoumois Grain-moth: a, eggs; 6, larva at work; 
c. larva, side view; d, pupa; e, moth; /, moth, side view. 
(From Chittenden, United States Department of Agriculture.) 




WEEVILS AXD GRAIN-BEETLES 



165 



wings, with transverse markings and dirty white hind-wings. Caterpillar lives in flours 
and meals, spinning a web and making the mass lumpy; also feeds on honeycomb. 

Special Treatment — Mills should be kept tightly closed at night and all incoming grain 
quarantined and fumigated. 

Granary Weevil {Calandra granaria) — All states. Flattened, shining, 
chestnut-brown snout-beetle {\ to \ inch long). Punctures kernels of grain and 
inserts egg,, or, in case of corn, several eggs, the larvae feeding on interior of grain. 
Beetles do as much damage as larvae, or even more, feeding on outside of kernels. 

Saw-tootliecl Grain- 
beetle {Silvanus stirinamensis, 
Fig. 83) — All states. Slender brown 
beetle (^ inch long), very common. 
Larva feeds on and infests cereals 
and dried foods. 

Confused Flour-beetle 
( Tr iholin m confusii m) — Plump, 
shining, reddish brown beetle, less 
than ^ inch long. Very prolific, 
causing much injury to flours, feeds, 
and prepared cereal foods. 

Square-necked Grain- 
beetle or Cotton -beetle 
( CWhartus gemellatus) — Southern 
States and even as far north as Xew York. Glossy reddish brown insect. Breeds 
in the field in corn in the ear and in cotton in the bolls, and continues breeding 
in harvested crops. Feeds principally on germs of grains attacked. 

Rice-weevil {Calandra oryzm) — Many states, but especially destructive to 
rice in the South. Dull-brown beetle with four red spots on wing-covers. Feeds on 
soft wheat, corn, husked rice, etc. 

Pea-weevil {B melius pisorum) — All states, attacking peas in storage and 
field. Beetle, a stout brownish or black insect, indistinctly marked with white. Eggs 
deposited on surface of pods. Larvae bore into soft peas, and also live on stored peas. 
Beetles emerge in late summer or autumn, or in early spring before planting time. 

Special Treatment — Keep seed peas in tight boxes over one season before planting ; plant 
as late as possible ; fumigate seed peas thoroughly ; throw seed in water, and reject and destroy 
all that float. 
12 




Fig. 83. Saw-toothed Grain-beetle: a, beetle: 6, pupa; c, 
larva; rf. larval antenna. All enlarged. (From Chitten- 
den, United States Department of Agriculture.) 



166 



FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES 



Bean-weevil {Bruclius ohtectus) — All states. Grayish brown beetle (| inch 
long). Infests beans in storage, breeding there ; often attacks other legumes. 
Special Treatment — Same as for pea- weevil. 
Cow-pea-weevil {Bruchus chinensis); Four-spottetl Bean-beetle 

{B. quadrimaculatus) — Southern States, and west and north as far as Iowa. 
Resembles bean-weevil in habits and injurious work, and is amenable to same 
treatment. 

IV. FRUIT TREES 

The principal fruits grown in the United States that will be treated here in 
relation to the insects inhabiting them and the diseases affecting them are the 
apple, pear, peach, plum, cherry, and quince. 

A brief statement of the general spraying treatment necessary for each will be 
given and the principal insects and diseases discussed. The scale-insect enemies 
will be treated as a group, separately. 

Orchards of all kinds should be kept clean and free from rubbish, dead limbs, 
and old stumps. Care in pruning at the proper time and before the limbs get 
large will save many ugly wounds and prevent many diseases and insects from 
obtaining entrance to the trees. 

THE APPLE 

Spraying Calendar 

The general spraying treatment required in the apple orchard, against both 
insects and fungi, may be summarized as follows: 



Treatment 


When to Spray 


Against 


1. Bordeaux mixture with 
Paris green. 


.Just as leaf buds expand. 


Scab, canker diseases, leaf -spot, bud-moth, 
case-bearers. 


3. Bordeaux mixture with 
Paris green. 


7-10 days later, or just as 
blossoms swell. 


Scab, leaf-spot, bud-worms, case-bearers, 
canker-worms, tent-caterpillars. 


3. Bordeaux mixture with 
Paris green. 


Just after blossoms fall. 


Scab and other leaf diseases, canker- 
worms, tent-caterpillars, codling-moth. 


4. Bordeaux mixture with 
Paris gree'i. 


10-14 days later. 


Scab, leaf -spot, etc., codling-moth, palmer- 
worm, Bucculatrix, and leaf feeders. 



THE APPLE 



167 



The last spraying is often especially necessary after damp or wet weather. Some experiment 
stations recommend three sprayings before the one marked 3 in the calendar. This will depend 
somewhat on the weather and advancement of the season. For the apple scab another treatment 
may be necessary after the fourth given above — say, a week or ten days later. 

For plant-lice, psyllids, and such leaf -sucking insects a 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion may be 
used, or, if applied before the leaves open out, it can be replaced by a stronger solution of whale- 
oil soap. 

(a) Important Insects Injukious to the Apple 

Woolly Aphis {ScJiizonenra lanigera, Fig. 84) — Tlioroughly distributed 
over United States. 

The plant-lice of this species are readily recognized on the trtmk and limbs by 
the woolly secretion attached to their bodies. When abundant it appears bluish 
white, not unlike some molds, beneath which may be found a cluster of minute, 
dark plant-lice. Lice are usually most abundant on roots, but appear above ground 
on branches, trunk, and young shoots, often collecting in an old scar. On large 
and small roots alike, they foi-m gall-like growths of all sizes ; and by this fact and 
the smoothness of their galls these growths can usually be distinguished from those 
of the crown-gall. Fig. 85 shows galls of both kinds. Species multiplies through 
most of year by birth of living young from wingless females. In October, and 
later, winged females appear and fly freely, thus distributing the insect; females 
of next generation lay a single 



egg, and thus sj^ecies is carried 
over winter. 

Treatment — For the aerial 
form 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion, 
or whale-oil soap, 1 to 7, may be suc- 
cessfully used. For the root form, 
place powdered tobacco around the 
tree under the surface of the ground, 
or treat with carbon bisulphide 
(which see). 

Apple-leaf Plant-lice 

(Aphis viali, and other species) 
— All apple-growing regions. 
On twigs of apple-trees in win- 
ter, especially on young stock, 
may be found oval shining 
black eggs, placed near buds 




Fig. 84. Woolly Aphis: a, agamic female: 6, larva; c, pupa: d, 
winged adult. (Marlatt.) 



168 



FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES 



along stem, in crevices of bark or on roughened places. Early in spring they hatch 
and young lice suck juices of young buds and unfolding leaves, arresting growth 
and causing them to curl. On young trees considerable injury is often done by 
preventing free growth of the twigs. The last generation of the year produces both 
sexes. These pair, and the eggs are laid for the succeeding spring's first brood. 
Some of the species live a part of the year on grains and grasses. 

Treatment — Free use of 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion early in spring will aid in keeping 
these insects in check. 

Api^le Leaf-hoppers {Typhlocyha mali, and other species) — Several forms 
occur on apple leaves throughout United States. Leaf-hoppers are sucking insects. 
Adult is minute, slender, with narrow wing-covers, and tapering from the head back. 
Those found on apple leaves vary from bright green to yellow, and often have 
brownish markings. May usually be found in all stages at any time during sum- 
mer, feeding on leaves, which a^spear spotted with white ; rarely do serious damage. 

Treatment — Kerosene sprays-or other contact insecticides are the only means of combating 
these insects. 




Fig. 85. Woolly Aphis aud Crown-galls, exterior views aud sections. (After Forbes.) 



THE APPLE 



169 




Fig. 86. Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer: a 
b, beetle; c, head of male; d, pupa, 
natural size. (From Chittenden, 
States Department of Agriculture.) 



, larva; 
Twice 
United 



Flat-lieaded Apple-tree Borer 

[Cliriisabtiiiiris femoi'atMS, Fig. 8G) — Larva 
lias very Hat head, wide, and with strong jaws; 
grows to about 1 inch in length. Beetle is 
bronze-colored, scarcely ^ inch long, with the 
head rounded and body tapering to a point. 

Treatment — Borers may be dug out or killed 
by inserting a wire in the burrow. Preventive methods 
are undoubtedly best. Tarred paper, wire mosquito- 
netting, or even ordinary newspapers may be used to 
wrap around trunk of tree, extending from ground up 
for 18 or 20 inches. This must be tied tightly at top 
and mounded up with an inch or two of dirt at bottom. 

Rouiid-lieaded Apple-tree Borer {Su- 
per da Candida, Eig. 87) — All apple-growing regions. 
Beetles are dark brown striped with white, and 
appear from late June to August ; eggs are laid on 
bark, or in its crevices, close to surface of ground. 
Young larva lives a year in the sap-wood, and later 
bores into trunk, changing in spring of third year 
.to adult beetle. Larva is legless, white, and dis- 
tinguished from other apple-tree borers by its round 
head. 

Ai)ple Twig-borer {AmpMcerus hicaudatus) 
— Twigs are injured by a small beetle which enters 
near the bud and makes a channel several inches 
long; injury is done in winter or early spring. Larva lives full life in dead or 
dying green brier roots or in grape roots. Borers sometimes attack grape twigs. 

Treatment — Clean up neglected brier patches and vineyards and burn refuse in fall. 

Apple-tree Tent-caterpillar {CUsiocampa americana, Eig. 88) — New 
England, Middle and Central States ; working on leaves of fruit trees. Egg-masses 
may be found during winter and spring on small twigs of trees, appearing as small 
belt of brown encircling twig. This mass when broken open is found to be a large 
number of eggs closely fastened together and covered with a varnish-like sub- 
stance. Larvaj hatch early in spring before leaves open out, and as soon as feed- 
ing commences begin to spin a web or "tent" in smaller forks of tree; feed in 




Fig. 87. Round-headed Apple-tree 
Borer: a, larva, from side; 6, larva, 
from above; c. adult female: d, 
pupa. Enlarged one third. (From 
Chittenden, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture.) 



170 



FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES 



colonies, and tent is enlarged, as larvae 
grow, until it sometimes nearly envelops 
a small tree. Full-grown larva is about 
1^ inches long, quite liairy, dull black, 
with white line down back and a series of 
white dots on each side. Cocoons are 
spun of thin yellowish silk and concealed 
in tree or in some sheltered spot near by. 
From these, in fall, emerge dull-reddish 
moths having two oblique pale stripes on 
the fore-wing. These soon lay eggs on 
twigs and life cycle is completed. 

Treatment — Destroy egg-masses in winter 
and young nests in spring, burning latter with 
torch, or twisting them out and then burning. 
Branches around nest may be sprayed with an 
arsenite, which will prove effectual in killing 
worms. 

Yellow-necked Caterpillar 

[Datana ministra) — Mississippi Valley 
and eastward. Eggs laid in masses in. 
spring by brownish yellow moths on 
under side of leaves. Insect hibernates 
in pupal state and moths emerge early. 
Worms feed in colonies, but without forming any web or tent; grow to be nearly 
2 inches long, have a black head and a yellow ''neck," and are marked with yellow 
and black stripes. When not feeding they have a peculiar habit of clinging to the 
twig with their false legs, and throwing back both the head and anal end. Become 
full grown in late July or early August, and, descending to ground, pupate beneath 
the surface. 

Treatment — Destroy colonies by hand when first noticed — several bare twigs near center of 
tree being usually the first thing to attract attention to them — and spray suj'rounding branches 
with a strong arsenite. 

Fall Webworni {Hyj)hantria cunea) — United States generally; attacks 
both fruit and shade trees. Insect hibernates as pupa, emerging in spring as moth 
with very white wings, which sometimes bear scattering black spots. Eggs are laid 
on leaves or small limbs in quite large masses, and young larvae make nest or web 




Fig. 88. Tent-caterpillar: a, b, larvte on nest ; c, egg- 
mass with gummy covering removed; d, cocoon. 
(Riley.) 



THE APPLE 



171 



in which tliey stay when not feeding. As they grow older they separate more, and 
are able to defoliate a considerable area of the tree. They pupate in early summer, 
and the second brood does far more damage than the first. These pupate in fall 
and remain in cocoons over winter. 

Treatment — Destroy webs when first seen ; use arsenical sprays on trees affected. By 
keeping careful watch they can be controlled. 

' Leaf-crumpler {Mineola indiginella, 
Fig. 89) — Apple-growing regions, and espe- 
cially in neglected nurseries and young or- 
chards; attacks also most other fruits. Eecog- 
inzed in winter by presence, on twigs, of little 
irregular bhick masses, which prove on close 
inspection to be short-coiled tubes tightly fas- 
tened to twig. Early in spring larva3 in these 
tubes begin to feed on young leaves, later 
binding together a small bunch of leaves, often 
at end of branch. When very abundant they 
sometimes attack young fruit and the bark of 
tender twigs. Larva is reddish brown, with 

dark brown head: becomes full grown in latter Fig. 89. Leaf-crumpler; a, tube of larva; b, 

. ^ . cluster of tubes and leaves; c, head end of 

part of May; and pupates within tube. In larva; d, adult moth. (Riiey.) 

June a small gray moth emerges and begins to lay eggs. Larva upon hatching 

soon commences its case, and feeds on leaves throughout summer. 

Treatment — A single spraying with an arsenite applied when leaves are just unfolding will 
completely control pest. 

Coclliiig-niotli or Apple-worm (Carpocapsa pomonella, Fig. 90) — 
Thoroughly distributed over United States. Common flesh-colored worm that is 
found in "wormy" apples ; work so well known that it is not necessary to describe 
it. Pest hibernates as larva in tightly spun cocoon, hidden away in crevice of bark, 
under rubbish on ground, or in apple storage houses and cellars. Early in spring 
it pupates, and about middle of May moths commence emerging in time to lay eggs 
on the young fruit and leaves close by. Egg is a tiny, flattened, milk-white form, not 
commonly seen. Larva commences feeding by crawling into calyx-end of apple, 
thence boring its way to the center. From last of June and onward first brood 
become full grown; and soon pupate in crevices of bark. Moths emerge in a few 
days and lay eggs on apples. Larvse hatching from these eggs rarely enter at end 




172 



FEUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES 




Fig. 90. Codliiig-nioth: «, apple showing bur- 
row; 6, original entrance; e, larva; d, pupa, 
/, g, moth; i, cocoon. (Riley.) 



of apple, but may bore in at any place. By 
first of August some of these are full grown, 
and descend to trunk of tree or to ground and 
spin a tight cocoon. There are but two broods 
in a year, the second brood hibernating as larvae 
in tigbtly spun cocoons. Many worms are not 
full grown when apples are picked, and these 
thus find their way into storage houses or are 
shipped to other places. 

Treatment — Spraying apple-trees immediately 
after the blossoms fall and before the calyxes of the 
fruit close, with a second spraying 7 to 10 days later 
with arsenites, will destroy most of these worms. In 
July trees may be banded with a piece of ordinary 
"gunny-sacking," 4 to 6 inches wide, which should be 
removed about every 10 days and worms destroyed. 
Storage houses and cellars should have screen doors and 
windows in order to prevent moths from escaping in 
the spring. Hogs allowed to run in orchard will destroy many worms in the fruit eaten. The 
"lantern-traps," and all the other so-called "moth-traps," in which lights are used to attract 
insects are of no value against the codling -moth or plum curculio, as neither is attracted by lights. 
In fact, the number of strictly beneficial insects caught by these " lantern- traps " is equal to, if 
not always much greater than, the number of injurious species captured. It will not pay the far- 
mer to use them. 

Oreeii Fruit Worms {Xylina anUnnata, and othev species) — Eastern and 
Central United States. Green or yellowish-green smooth worms which grow to a 
length of 1 to 1-^ inches. Feed on young fruit of almost any kind, especially apple, 
peach, and pear. Hibernate as adult moths — dark, broad-winged night-fliers. 
Eggs are laid early in spring and young larvae attack both foliage and fruit. Are 
full grown by middle of June and pupate in ground, moths emerging early in fall. 

Treatment — Thorough cultivation late in summer may be of value in destroying the pupa ; 
for the worms, jar from tree as for plum curculio. They seem to be able to resist the arsenites ; 
probably because they eat but little of the surfaces treated. 

Canker- worms. Spring- {Pahacrita vernata, Figs. 91, 92) and Fall [Ani- 
sopteryx pometaria) — Distributed over United States, attacking fruit and shade 
trees, often causing serious damage. Early in spring, soon after leaves begin to put 
forth, small, green or dark green measuring worms may appear on trees, dropping 
to ground by a thread when disturbed. These pests, the canker-worms, usually occur 



THE APPLE 



173 




Fig. 91. Spring Canker-worm: 
o, larva; 6, eggs; c, d, details. 
(Riley.) 




Fig. 93. Springr Canker-worm, a, adult male; 
b, adult female; c, d, e, details. (Riley.) 



in such numbers as quickly to defoliate a tree. They are 
full grown by middle or last of May, descend to the 
ground, and form cocoons several inches below surface. 
Fall species comes out late in autumn and lays eggs on 
trees, while spring species appears the first warm days in 
late winter or early spring. The two sexes of the moths 
are very different, the males having thin ashy-gray wings 
crossed by several lines and bars, while the 
females are wingless. Soon after emerging 
females crawl up trunks of trees and lay eggs 
on twigs, buds, and smaller branches. 

Treatment — Thorough spraying with arsenites 
early in spring will control this insect in orchards. 
The application should be made as soon as leaves 
begin to open, and, if necessary, another treatment 
should be given in a few days. (See under Shade-Tree Insects for other remedies.) 

Pistol-case Bearer {Cokophora malivorella) — From Canada southward 
through Pennsylvania, and westward to Nebraska and New Mexico. Hibernates in 
its little case as a partly grown larva, attacking buds, leaves, and flowers in early 
spring. As it grows larger it builds on to the old case pieces of stems and leaves. 
It feeds openly, never mining the leaves as does the next species, but is most 
destructive to petals and stems of flowers. It pupates the last of May, and in a few 
weeks moths appear and lay cinnamon-colored eggs on the leaves. The young 
caterpillar hatches in about a week, beginning immediately to construct a case, and 
in September it migrates to twigs and fastens itself up for the winter. 

Treatment — See under Bud Moth. 

Cigar-case Bearer ( CoUopliora fietchereUa) — Canada and Eastern United 
States, and perhaps to some extent in other states. This species, which bears a case 
having a fancied resemblance to a cigar, feeds on buds, leaves, and flowers of fruit 
trees. It hibernates in its case as a half-grown larva, the case being firmly attached 
to a twig. In early spring the insects commence feeding on most tender foliage, 
and as they grow larger discard their case and mine between the leaf surfaces. 
At times the larva feeds on young fruit, but after flowers fall it gets its food 
chiefly by mining the leaves. Pupation occurs last of June. Soon thereafter a 
tiny moth emerges and lays eggs among the leaf hairs. The caterpillars hatch 
in July, and soon construct the case in which they winter. 

Treatment — See under Bud Moth. 



174 



FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES 



Bud Moth {Tmetocera ocellana) — Probably occurs throughout most apple- 
producing states. During winter the larva lives securely fastened in a case con- 
cealed by a bnd or rough place in bark ; in early spring it comes forth and feeds 
on and in swelling buds and new leaves, tying them together with silk for a retreat, 
the dry brown leaves often being seen at the ends of the twigs. Larva dark brown, 
with darker head, being when full grown nearly -| inch in length ; pupates in May, 
the small, dark ashy-gray moth emerging early in June. Eggs laid by first of July; 
larvfe which hatch from them feed near tips of branches until hibernating time. 

Treatment — For the last three pests foregoing — lesser apple insects, as they might be 
called — the same treatment can be applied — early thorough arsenical spraying. If buds are 
thoroughly coated with spray there will be but little trouble with these insects. The case-bearers 
may need a second treatment when flower buds are swelling. Do not spray open flowers. 

Ai>i)le-leaf Bucculatrix {Buccrdatrix pomifoliella) — Most Eastern and 
Northern States, and to a less extent in Central and Southern. Does but little 
damage as a general rule, thougli it may be found mining the leaves in early sum- 
mer. Larva makes elongate white-ribbed cocoon and fastens it to branch of tree. 
Cocoons are often seen in fall and winter, and are sometimes objects of much 
concern to those who find them. 

Apple-fruit Maggot {Ehagoletis pomonella) — New England, south to 
New Jersey, and westward at least to Michigan and Northern Illinois. Early in 
summer, from eggs laid by a small two-winged fly on. the fruit, hatch small, white, 

footless maggots, which channel the 
fruit in every direction, utterly ruin- 
ing it and causing it to rot and fall. 
Wherever the maggot occurs it is 
undoubtedly a serious pest. 

Treatment — Destroy infested fruit 
by hand-picking or by allowing hogs to 
run in orchard. Thorough cultivation in 
fall may aid in checking the pest, as it 
pupates in ground. 

Seventeen-year Locust 

{Cicada septemdecim., Fig. 93) — 
Adults injure apple and many other 
trees and shrubs by laying eggs in 

Fig. 93. The Seventeen-year Locust: a, adult; c, pupa from tender twigS and Smaller branches ; 
which 6, an adult, lias emerged; d, egg-punctures. (From 
Riley, United States Department of Agriculture.) 




larva, upon hatching from Qgg, falls 



THE APPLE 



175 




Fig. '.14. Biiffal > Tree-hopper: a, adult; b, c, d, tarsus, 
antenna, and wiug; /', g, tip of abdomen, showing 
ovipositor; e, h, i, details. (From Ril^y, United 
States Department of Agriculture.) 



uO ground and burrows beneath soil, feed 
ing on juices of roots ; adult emerges in 
spring of seventeenth year after larva 
entered ground. Twigs in which eggs 
have been laid either break down later or 
become deformed in growth. 

Treatment — There is no remedy for the 
trouble. It would be good practice to cut oflf 
the affected twigs, as they will never make 
healthy branches. Do not plant young trees 
the year a brood is to appear. 

Buffalo Tree-hopper {Ceres a 
buhalus, Fig. 94) — This small grass-green 
insect often attracts attention by its tri- 
angular shape and lenping powers ; may be seen on twigs and leaves of several 
orchard trees; damages apple twigs by laying eggs in slits in new growth. 

Treatment — Insects difficult to combat ; best remedy is vigorous pruning of affected twigs 
in fall. 

Red Spider {Tetranyclms Umaculatus, Fig. 95) — AVhile this is not an 
insect it often occurs in countless numbers on trees in the orchard. The red 
spider is a small mite and feeds on juices of leaves of several trees and shrubs. 
On apple-trees they sometimes cluster in masses at base of larger limbs and on 
trunk, spinning a thick network of fine silken threads. 

Treatment — Spraying thoroughly with ordinary cold water has been found beneficial, 
(b) Important Diseases of the Apple 

Bitter-rot {Gleosporium fructigemim, Fig. 96) — A de- 
structive disease, occurring over most of the United States, 
and at times causing immense losses in fruit. Disease may be 
readily recognized. It begins in the form of one or more small 
brown specks, which soon enlarge and become distinct dark- 
colored spots, circular and sunken ; tissue beneath always re- 
mains dry and tough ; numbers of pustules soon form over 
affected area, arranged in concentric circles and covering all but 
outer margin; pustules break and discharge a fine pinkish mass, 
which later turns ashy gray. The apples are affected with the fig. 95. Red Spider 
disease throughout, and shrivel up into hard wrinkled bodies nifled.^'cHarvey!?^^ 




176 



FEUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES 




Fig. 96. Bitter-rot cauker. 
(Blair, Illinois Bulletin 77.) 



known as '' mummies/' which sometimes r.emain on tree 
throughout winter and until late the following year. The 
disease lives over winter in the old dried fruits or in wound- 
like infected spots on limbs. It is distributed by means of 
spores carried from the mummies or cankers by splashing 
drops of rain, or by insects. The first infection of the year 
evidently comes from the cankers, and the spores are carried 
by rain drops to the apples below, thus spreading in a 
cone-shaped form. 

Treatment — Disease travels slowly from orchard to orchard and 
even from tree to tree. Destroy every affected apple as soon as noticed, 
and search for and destroy the canker in the tree; look for these sources 
of infection just above the infected apples ; remove and destroy all 
mummies. Disease can be kept in check by repeated applications of 
Bordeaux mixture. 



Leaf-spot, Apple Blotch {PhyllosHcta pinna) — 
Caused by fungi which attack leaves and sometimes fruit of apples and pears ; 
appears on leaves soon after they unfold, in form of small reddish-brown spots, 
which later turn gray; often confused with ''spray burn" which, however, leaves 
darker markings. On the fruit this disease occurs as small, black, irregular spots, 
a number of which often unite in a blotch; not known to do serious damage to fruit. 
Treatment — Early Bordeaux spraying before leaves open, and again, if necessary, after 
fruit has formed. 

Leaf-blight { Entomosporium maculatum) — Disease appears early, and 
much resembles the one just described ; attacks quince as well as apple; leaves 
sometimes become so badly diseased that they fall. 

Treatment — Spray early with Bordeaux, and if necessary several times, until August. 

Apple Rust, Cedar Fungus {Oymnosporangium macropus) — Occurs 
wherever red cedars and junipers are grown ; sometimes a serious pest on apple and 
quince. 

On apple leaves this disease is first noticed in May or June, when bright yellow 
spots appear ; fruit is often attacked in same manner : spots are caused by spores 
blown or otherwise carried from the common "cedar balls." 

Treatment — Destroy surrounding cedar and juniper trees ; or, if this is not desirable, pick 
off cedar balls in fall and burn them. Bordeaux spray on the cedars early in spring has been 
found in some cases quite effective. 



THE APPLE 



177 





Fig. 97. Apple-scab on apples. 



Ai>i)le-scab {Fusicladium clendrUicum, Fig. 97) — A\\ apple regions. This 
fungous disease attacks both leaves and fruit of the apple and sometimes other 
fruits. On the upper surfaces of leaves irregular soot-colored spots are formed; 
on fruit the spots are at first of this same color, but later enlarge, get rough 
and black, check growth of apple, 
and cause it to become distorted 
and worthless as first-class fruit. 
Sometimes petioles and young 
twigs are attacked and even fruit 
stems injured. 



Treatment — While it is impos- 
sible to exterminate so wide-spread and 
common a disease, it can be thoroughly 
controlled by careful, conscientious 
spraying. Bordeaux mixture as the buds are swelling, just before the blossoms open, just after 
blossoms fall, 7 to 10 days later, and even again, if necessary, has been found to give best results. 
The last two sprayings may cause some burning of fair-skinned apples. 

Crown-gall of Apple (Fig. 85) — Many portions of United States and 
spreading rapidly, being carried by infested nursery stock. The cause of the dis- 
ease is not known but has been ascribed to some form of bacteria not yet isolated. 
It is a dangerous disease, and growers should be very careful to see that nursery 
stock is absolutely free from it. "It most commonly affects the crown of the tree, 
producing a dark, rough, abruptly protruding tumor, varying in size from a pea to 
that of the fist, or larger. A badly affected tree is likely to show signs of starva- 
tion, its growth ceasing and its foliage having a sickly yellow look. Young trees 
often perish from the disease, and even lai-ge orchard trees will die and break off 
at the base. It is certainly contagious in some forms and perhaps in all. What is 
apparently a form of this same gall is fonnd growing above the surface of the 
ground, at first appearing on the trunk as a small lump or tubercle, which later 
grows into a large wart-like excrescence and eventually girdles the trunk." (Forbes.) 
Young galls of this kind also start out on the limbs, especially along the under 
side, and as they grow older darken and get rough in the same manner. On old 
galls small white or yellow points may be seen early in spring, which later take 
on the darker color, harden, and break open into rough cankery spots. 



Treatment — There is no known cure for the disease. Destroy all trees found infested, or 
cut off the galls appearing on the limbs and paint over with Bordeaux wash. 



178 FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES 

Root-rot ( Telepliora gallactina) — A disease common in orchards, especially 
in those grown on old forest-land or where diseased trees formerly grew ; usually 
fatal ; trees affected suffer general loss of roots, and have a " starved and enfeebled 
look." Often a mass of gum and scaly bark collects at the base of the tree, or large 
irregular white layers of fungous growth spread between the bark and the wood or 
run through the ground from root to root. Several species of mushrooms that 
seem to be the fruiting bodies of some of these "rotten-root" fungi grow at the 
base of the trunk. 

Treatment — As this fungus seems to be capable of spreading in the ground from tree to 
tree, it is well not to plant any young trees on land where old diseased ones have been until after 
thorough cultivation. An affected tree is worthless and should be at once destroyed. 

Apple-tree Canker, Api>le-fruit Black Rot {Sphceropsis malorum) 
— Occurs over a large part of the apple-growing area of the United States. Disease 
affects limbs and fruit of apple, pear, and quince. Large limbs blacken, and bark 
roughens and splits, disclosing wood and causing a very rough, ugly-looking canker. 
Can be distinguished from the bitter-rot canker by the fact that in that canker the 
bark does not split away and disclose wood beneath. Black rot of the apple is 
caused by the same fungus, but rarely becomes a serious menace to the grower. 

Treatment — Remove and destroy affected limbs ; cut out diseased bark, and paint over all 
wounds with Bordeaux wash. When spraying in regular orchard treatment, see that the limbs 
are well covered with the spray. 

ApiJle-twig Blig^lit {Bacillus arnylovorus) — Caused by the same bacterium 
as the pear blight; rarely affects much more than. the young growth on twigs. 
Spraying has not been found of much avail ; cut off and destroy twigs affected. 
(See Pear Blight.) 

Ripe Rot {Monilia fructigena) — See under Plum. 

THE PEAR 

Tlie general spraying treatment recomtnended for the apple will apply to the pear, 
with the addition of a kerosene emulsion spray hefore the buds burst in the spring in 
order to control the pear-blister mite and psyllids. 

The pear is attacked by many of the apple enemies, such as the codling-moth, 
green fruit worms, case-bearers, and tent-caterpillars, and several of the leaf fungi 
and canker diseases work on this plant as well as on the apple. 



THE PEAR 



179 




Fig. 98. Sinuate Pear-tree Borer: 
o, larva; 6, beetle; c, pupa, 
enlarged. (Banks, United 
States Department of Agri- 
culture.) 



(a) Important Insects Injurious to the Pear 

Sinuate Pear-tree Borer {Agrilus sinuahts, 
Fig. 98) — This dangerous enemy of the pear is proving 
difficult of control. It is as yet confined to some of the 
Eastern States, but will undoubtedly appear elsewhere 
Larva causing trouble is about two inches long when full 
grown, white or dirty white in color, with broad flat head 
and small jaws. Feeds for two years before attaining full 
growth, and in that time makes "immensely long zigzag 
galleries " between bark and wood, finally girdling tiee and 
killing it. Beetle is small (^ inch long), narrow, and dark 
colored, looking very much like other species of its genus, 
being square-headed and tapering back almost to a point. 
It appears in May or early June and lays eggs in crevices of bark, the slender 
whitish larvge soon hatching and commencing their fatal work. 

Treatment — No absolutely successful treatment has yet been found. The general recom- 
mendations for the apple-tree borers will apply, and newspapers or other bands may be fastened 
about the tree to prevent eggs from being laid on it. Wire netting will not serve, as the beetle or 
young larva can readily pass through it. Thorough whitewashing of the trunks and lower limbs 
will aid in keeping the borers out. A little Paris green might be added to the whitewash. 

Pear-leaf Blister {Eriophyes pyri) — Occurs wherever pears are grown. 
The injury done the leaf and known by the above name is '"'caused by minute, four- 
legged mites which live within the substance of the leaf, and pass the winter in the 
bud scales at or near the ends of the twigs." (Forbes.) There appear at first on 
the leaves "reddish, blister-like spots, } inch or more in diameter/' These gradually 
change, through green, to black and unite, forming corky spots. The mites often 
destroy the larger part of the leaf tissue of a tree. 

Treatment — Thorough spraying of infested trees in winter with strong kerosene emulsion 
diluted virith 5 to 7 parts water, covering especially the terminal buds ; hand-picking and destruc- 
tion of leaves in early spring, when but a few are infested. 

Pear-slug" {Selandria cerasi) — Light-colored slimy larvae of a "saw-fly," a 
four-winged fly, which appear on the leaves early in the year and often skeletonize 
them. Worms feed on upper surfaces only, but to such an extent that trees are 
sometimes completely defoliated. 

Treatment — Usually controlled when spraying for other insects, but if not, give a thorough 
treatment with Paris green or other arsenical spray. 

Other Insects Attacking the Pear — See Index. 



180 



FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES 



(b) Important Diseases of the Pear 

Pear-blight, Fire-blight, Apple-twig Blight {Bacillus amylo- 
vorus) — A contagious bacterial disease affecting several of the fruit trees, but doing 
greatest damage to the pear. Infests cells of plant, multiplying in sap and event- 
ually permeating and destroying the whole tree. Bacteria are supposed to get 
entrance at blossoming time, the infection perhaps being carried by insects. 

Treatment — Cut out affected part several inches below where it shows disease, and paint 
wound with Bordeaux wash. There being no known cure, trees should be cut out and burned 
after disease has once reached large limbs and body. 

Other Pear Diseases — See Index. 



THE PEACH 

Spraying Calendar 

The general spraying treatment for leaf-feeders and diseases affecting the peach 

is as follows : 



- 

Treatment When to Spray 


Against 


1 . Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. 


Before buds swell. 


Leaf -curl, brown rot, bud-moth. 


2. Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. 


After blossoms fall. 


Leaf-curl, brown rot, plum-cur- 
culio, leaf-feeders. 


3. Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. 


Two weeks later. 


Brown rot and leaf -feeders. 


4. Ammoniacal copper-carbonate. 


When fruit is well formed. 


Brown rot. 



On the peach, as on other fruit trees, kerosene emulsion may bo used in 10 per cent, strength 
for such sucking insects as need treatment. As peach foliage is more tender than that of other 
trees, Bordeaux treatments need to be carefully given and the mixtures well prepared. 

(a) Important Insects Injurious to the Peach 

Peach-tree Borer {Sanninoidea exitiosa. Fig. 99) — All peach regions. 
May be recognized by gummy exudations about lower parts of trunk and often by 
sickly appearance of tree. Insect passes the winter in a cocoon near outer portion 
of burrow ; pupates and emerges as a moth in the spring. Male moths have 
clear wings and females purplish front wings and clear hind wings. Eggs are laid 
from May to July, according to latitude, and are placed singly on bark of tree near 
base. Larva, upon hatching, burrows into bark and mines between it and sap-wood 



THE PEACH 



181 




t IG. 99. IViU h-tree Borer: «, adult female; fc, adult male; c, full- 
grown larva; d. female pupa; e, male pupa; /, pupa skin extended 
partially from cocoon. All natural size. (From Marlatt, United 
States Department of Agriculture.) 



until fall; is inactive in winter, 
completing growth early the 
next year; is soft, pale yellow 
in color, with a dark, shining 
head, and grows to be over 1 
inch in length. Moths emerge 
in South very early in spring, 
but in the North usually not 
until May or June. There is 
but one brood a year. 

Treatment — Digging out borers, 
killing by inserting a wire, and pro- 
tecting trees from their entrance. Last named is undoubtedly the best measure, but it is not 
uniformly successful, and trees should always be looked over each year to see that no larvjs are 
getting a start. The same protective treatment as recommended for apple borers may be used ; 
that is, banding with nevFspapers or tarred paper. 

Fruit-tree Bark-beetle {Scolytus rngulosus, Fig. 100) — From Michigan 
south to Georgia and Alabama and from Massachusetts west to Arkan- 
sas. Beetle attacks all the orchard trees, but 
seems to be foitnd more abundantly on plum 
and peach. Adult is a small brownish -black 
beetle, \ inch long, very active, and as early 
as the middle of March begins to form bur- 
rows in the bark. After penetrating to the 
sap-wood the female constructs a brood cham- 
ber, in which eggs are laid. Larvae upon 
hatching soon excavate little side galleries 
which they widen as they grow, full-grown 
larvae crossing and recrossing galleries until 
there is a network of grooves all under 
the bark. The injury is recognized from 
outside by tiny shot-hole-like openings 
scattered all over the bark. Larva is 
Avhite, with yellowish head and brown 
jaws, and its surface is much wrinkled. 

Two broods occur in the Forth, and more Fig. lOO. FruiWree Bark-beetle: adult beetle, highly 
linv<i \^(^M^ T(^nnv{(^f^ frnm tliP Snn+1-. magnified; twig showing holes, natural size, and 

nave oeen repoiiea iiom ine ooum. twig showing burrows. (Forbes.) 

13 




182 FEUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES 

Treatment — Carbolic acid soap may be applied to trees to deter the beetles from making 
attempts to bore into the bark. This should be applied in March or April just before the wai-m 
days of spring. Clean culture will be found one of the best means of keeping this little pest out 
of the orchard. 

Black Peach-aphis {Aphis persicm-niger) — Most of the peach-growing 
regions. Works on peach roots in very much the same manner as does the woolly 
aphis on apple roots. The wingless lice live mostly on roots, but early in spring some 
climb up and infest the young twigs, whei-e the winged form develops and then 
migrates to other trees. The wingless insects are reddish brown or black, and the 
winged females jet-black or dark brown, with yellow marks on legs. Affected trees 
have sickly foliage, the leaves being light green or yellowish, with the edges 
slightly rolled. 

Treatment — Use tobacco about roots or kill with carbon bisulphide fumes. Kerosene emul- 
sion used on infested trees in spring and early summer might prevent the infestation of other trees. 

Other Insects Attacking the Peach — See Index, 

(b) Importa-NT Diseases of the Peach 

Crown-gall of Peach {Dendrophagus glohosus) — Throughout United 
States, affecting peach, apricot, and almond. This crown-gall has been proved very 
satisfactorily by Professor Toumey to be a contagious disease caused by a minute 
parasitic organism belonging to the "slime molds.*' In appearance it is very much 
like the crown-gall of the apple. 

Treatment — No treatment known which can be relied upon to cure. Dig up and destroy 
affected trees, and be careful to examine roots of nursery stock before planting. 

Leaf-cnrl {Exonscus deformans) — Most peach-growing regions. Leaves 
become distorted and curled, first near end of twig and later along entire branch. 
As disease progresses, affected leaves get paler, then become covered with a grayish 
mealy substance, and often fall. 

Treatment — Can be easily controlled by early thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 

Peach-yellows — A highly contagious disease attacking peach and some 
varieties of plums; cause, unknown. Presence may be recognized by yellowish 
foliage, general sickly appearance of tree, premature ripening of fruit, and presence 
of reddish spots in flesh of fruit ; leaves often fall. 

Treatment — Dig up and burn all affected trees, being careful that the diseased tree is not 
dragged against a healthy one, as it is believed that infection may occur in this manner. 



PEACH AXI> PLUM 



183 



Liittle Peach Disease — Another contagious disease of unknown cause. 
Trees, especially their leaves, look sickly, and fruit ripens late, scarcely attaining 
a third its ordinary size. 

Treatment — Dig up and burn all affected trees. 

Peach Fruit-spot, Plum-scab, Cherry-scab — This is evidently the 
same disease, whether occurring in the peach, plum, or cherry, and it also attacks 
the apricot. It at first produces purple blotches on the fruit, which later cause 
the skin to split. It works on young bark in the same manner. 

Tkeatsient — Thorough Bordeaux sprayings early in spring, and again, later, as given in 
calendar, will control this disease. 

Browu Rot {Monilia fructigena) — Fungous disease of the peach fruit, 

somewhat more likely to be prevalent after warm, showery weather. Infection is 

from mummies remaining on the trees, and perhajis from other causes. The peaches 
rot rapidly when once started, many falling from the trees. 

Treatment — Destroy all mummies and diseased fruit. The regular sprays for the leaf -curl, 
with additional ones as given in the calendar, will control this disease. 

Other Peach Diseases — See Index. 

THE PLUM 

Spraying Calendar 
The general spraying treatment for the plum is as follows : 



Treatment 



1. Bordeaux mixture and Paris 
green. 



When to Spray 



When leaf buds open. 



Against 



Bud-worms, case-bearers, shot-hole 
fungus. 



Curculio, green fruit worms, fruit rot. 



2. Bordeaux and Paris green. 



When fruit is just formed. 



3. Bordeaux. 



Two weeks later. 



Brown rot. 



4. Ammoniacal copper-carbo- 
nate. 



When fruit is large. 



Brown rot. 



Kerosene emulsion for plant-lice in the early spring. 

(a) Important Insects Injurious to the Plum 
Pluni-curculio or "Little Turk" {Conotrachelus nenuphar, Fig. 
101) — Kanges thi'ough Atlantic States and westward to Missouri River, working on 
plum, peach, pear, apple, cherry, and quince. The work of this pest is first noticed 



184 



FRUIT IKSECTS AND DISEASES 



wlien the fruit is still small by the crescent-shaped spot cut by the beetle when pre- 
paring to deposit her egg. The larva is well protected from attack with any insec- 
ticide. Affected plums and some other fruits drop in 
a short time after larva begins feeding around stone. 
Larva is a small, stout, dirty white legless maggot, 
which when full grown pupates in the ground; beetle 
emerges from ground in latter part of summer, and 
immediately goes into hibernation until spring. 

Treatment — Success is attained in treating this insect 
only by persistent and continued effort. Spraying with 
arsenites will aid to some extent, but the most successful 
measure is to spread a sheet or other cloth on the ground in 
early morning, soon after plums begin to form, and jar the 
tree, collecting and destroying beetles that fall. This must be 
kept up for several days. In commercial orchards the cloth is 
stretched on a frame and the persons bearing it stand one on each side of tree, while another jars it. 

Other Insects Attacking the Plum — See Index. 




Fig. 101. Plum-curculio: a. larva; 
6, pupa; c, beetle; rf, young plum 
siiowing crescent. (Riley.) 



(b) Important Diseases of the Plum 

Black-knot {PJowrightia morhosa) — Widely distributed over the United 
States, in some places doing much damage to both plum and cherry-trees; also 
attacks wild plum and wild cherry. 

Disease first appears as a thickening or swelling of the twig, which, becoming 
thicker on one side, soon breaks through bark, a spongy mass growing out, and large, 
sooty-black, wart-like masses appear, broken by deep fissures. Where the knot 
girdles the twig or branch it soon kills it. Disease is spread from tree to tree by 
spores carried by wind or other agency. The most destructive and deadly of plum 
diseases, and every effort possible should be made to stamp it out. Trees are 
sometimes killed by it in a couple of years. 

Treatment — Cut off and burn all parts showing any trace of the knots, cutting some dis- 
tance below the last sign of affection, washing cut surfaces with Bordeaux mixture, or, if large, 
painting them over thoroughly with Bordeaux wash. 

Shot-hole Fung'us {CyUndrisporiimi padi) — Disease appears first as a 
minute brown spot with reddish margin on leaf. Spot soon gets darker, and finally 
brownish black, at which stage many spots break away from surrounding tissue and 
fall out. This causes the characteristic appearance from which the name is taken. 

Treatment — Bordeaux sprays will control if applied early. 



CHEERY AND QUmCE 185 

Yeflcws — Attacks Japanese plums. See under Peach. 

Ripe-fruit Rot {Monilia fructigena) — Prevalent in most plum-growing 
regions. Due to attack of a fungus that probably lives over in a mummy on the 
tree ; fruit ripens early and at the same time rapidly rots. 

Treatment — Keep trees clear of infested fruit; use Bordeaux mixture according to calendar. 

Plum-pockets {Exoascus pruni) — Not common over the country but often 
quite serious locally. Attacks fruit soon after blossoming time, causing it to turn 
yellow, then dark brown and black ; fruit usually falls in June. 

Treatment — Spray with Bordeaux mixture when buds are beginning to swell and again just 
before blossoms open. 

Other Plum Diseases — See Index. 

THE CHERRY 

Impoktant Insects and Diseases 

The cherry requires the same general treatmerit as the phwi. It is infested by 
some of the worst pests of the other fruits, among which are the fruit bark-beetle, 
pear-slug, black-knot, fruit rot, and leaf-spots, besides many others. 

Cherry Maggot {Rhagoletis cingulata) — Not common. The life history 
of this insect is very similar to that of the apple maggot. 

Treatment — The chief recommendations have been fall plowing, to destroy pupa, and com- 
plete destruction of all infested fruit on trees as soon as seen. This last, if done in time, would 
probably prevent its spread in the orchard. 

Cherry Aphis {Myzus cerasi) — Most chei-ry regions, but as a rule does little 
damage. A small black plant-louse, occurring as soon as leaves start in early spring. 
The young hatch from eggs laid on twigs and buds the preceding fall. Multiplies 
in the usual manner of plant-lice through summer ; hibernates in Qgg state. 

Treatment — Kerosene emulsion on tree just before eggs are laid, and perhaps in spring 
soon after eggs hatch. 

Other Cherry Insects and Diseases — See Index. 

THE QUINCE 

Important Insects and Diseases 

The general treatment for the quince, in the matter of spraying, is practically 
the same as that for the apfle. 

The quince is attacked by nearly all the apple enemies of rank, and also by pear- 
blight and shot-hole fungus. 

Quince Black Rot — This is identical with the black rot of apples. 



186 IMPOETANT SCALE INSECTS 

Frviit-spot and Leaf-spot — These are caused by the bacillus of the 
pear leaf-blight. 

Quince Rust — Caused by same fungus as rust of the apple, and remedied 
by cutting out cedar trees. Sometimes assumes on the quince a serious character, 
extending into tissue of young branches and deforming them. 

Other Quince Insects and Diseases — See Index. 

V. IMPORTANT SCALE INSECTS OF FRUIT TREES, BUSH 

FRUITS, AND VINES 

Rang'e and Importance — Within recent years the scale insects have 
attained such an importance through their multiplication and rapid spread over the 
United States, that they are regarded as highly dangerous pests, and in many 
states have necessitated stringent legislation. 

All herein treated are capable of doing serious damage to trees and vines. A 
few general statements regarding their lives will apply to all the species treated. The 
scales belong to the same order of insects as do the plant-lice, squash-bugs, leaf- 
hoppers, and other sucking insects injurious to vegetation. 

Life History — From the outward appearance, one not informed would 
scarcely consider them insects at all ; but upon raising the tiny scale, the insect 
may bo seen beneath it. This insect is a louse, appearing to the naked eye only as 
a soft mass affixed tightly to the bark. Its long thread-like beak or sucking tube 
is driven far into the wood, and by means of it the louse gets its food — the sap of 
the tree or vine. The scale is a protective covering secreted from the body of 
the louse after it has affixed itself to the bark. The larger number of scale insects 
hatch from eggs laid by the female under her scale, which protects them after she 
has died and dried away. In the case of the San Jose scale and the European fruit- 
scales, the young are usually brought forth alive, and this is occasionally true of 
some other scales also. 

The peach Lecanium secretes no true scale, but remains exposed all its life. 
The other species here referred to affix themselves to the tender bark soon after 
hatching and begin in a short time to secrete their armor. 

Difficulty of Combating: — By reason of the protective scale it is often 
a difficult matter to destroy the occupant beneath. Where the period of hatching 
is well defined a thorough treatment with a contact insecticide may be made before 
the scale of the louse has had time to become protective. Treatment for the more 
fully developed insect in those species that pass the winter partly grown can best 



SAN JOSE SCALE 



187 



be given after the leaves have fallen in autnmn and b'efore the buds open out in 

the spring. Most authorities seem to agree that the later the spray can be applied 

in the spring the better the results will be. In the winter no injury need be 

apprehended from the use of substances for spraying which would cause the 

destruction of foliage and often the death of the trees in the growing mouths. 

The scales to be treated have been divided into two classes : those belonging to 

the genus Aspidiofns, and often known as the "ring and nipple" scales; and those 

of various other genera, the most of which pass the winter in the egg stage beneath 

the female scale. 

THE RING AND NIPPLE SCALES 

To this genus belongs the most destructive of the scale insects — the San Jose 
scale. Several other species at 
times do considerable damage. 
The species all closely resemble 
each other, and it is difficult for 
the ordinary observer to distin- 
guish them by the means usually 
at hand. Whenever a scale is 
found about which there is any 
doubt, the much safer plan is 
to send specimens to some com- 
petent authority for determina- 
tion. 

San Jose Scale {Aspid- 
iofns perniciosus, Fig. 102) — 
Widely distributed over the 
United States and rapidly 
spreading. It infests practi- 
cally all our fruit trees, many 
shade trees, and several shrubs. 

Trees badly infested show 
dark scurfy patches on the bark, 
and the fruit, when present, is 
often well covered with the 
scale. On the fruit and young CIL 

1-wio-a tliova TO nanolKr r, vorlrlioU FiG. 103. San Jose Scale: a, natural size; 6, magnified. (Howard 
i/Wigb LiitJie lb UhUclliy a leuuisn and Marlatt, United states Department of Agriculture.) 




188 IMPOETANT SCALE INSECTS 

discoloration where the scale is present. The single scale is nearly circular in 
outline in the female, grayish in color in mature specimens, with an almost jet- 
black central nipple surrounded by one or more distinct yellowish or grayish rings. 
The crowding of scales on bark often changes the circular outline. The young 
scale is jet-black, evenly circular, and shows the central nijaple and two depressed 
rings very plainly. The San Jose scale differs from the European fruit-scale in 
general appearance only in the presence of the black nipple, and from the Forbes 
and the Putnam scales by the fact that it lacks the distinct brighter-colored exu- 
vium located near the center of those scales. The insect passes the winter, partly 
grown, beneath scale. In spring it soon attains maturity, and the males, which 
are winged, appear and mate with females. No eggs are laid, female giving birth 
to living young. The number of broods is stated to depend on length of season, 
as females produce young when they are from "thirty-five to forty days old" and 
continue to do so for about six weeks. 

Treatment — Use lime-sulphur-and-salt wash after leaves are oflf trees. If possible to treat 
trees just before buds swell in spring, do so, as treatment at that time will probably be the most 
effectual. Treat trees thoroughly, seeing that every branch and twig is well covered with solu- 
tion. The wash will not injure the trees. If for any reason the materials for this wash cannot 
readily be obtained, whale-oil soap can be used on all trees but peach at the rate of 2 pounds soap 
to 1 gallon water. For summer treatment for control of scale use 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion. 

European Fruit-scale {Aspidiotus ostreceformis) — Known as yet only in 
some of the Northern States. Occurs on all orchard trees. This scale passes the 
winter partly mature and by the last of June becomes full grown, the females soon 
afterward giving birth to living young. "• There appears to be but one brood a year, 
at least in the Northern States." (Banks.) It very closely resembles the San Jose 
scale, although the young scales are paler, and the adult female scale is not so 
nearly circular and lacks dark central nipple. 

Treatment — Same as for San Jose scale. . , 

Putnam's ^aikXe {As2ndiotus ancylus) — Widely distributed over the United 
States, and attacks all orchard trees and many shade trees ; rarely occurs, however, 
in abundance on fruit trees. Hibernates as a full-grown insect, the females laying 
eggs late in spring or early summer, and the young hatching in July ; one brood a 
year. Adult scales of this species also very closely resemble the San Jose scale, but 
have a visible, orange-colored exuvium and are less circular, while the young scales 
have no depressed ring about nipple. This scale is usually darker than the Forbes 
scale. 

Treatment — Same as for San Jose scale. 



CHERRY SCALE, GRAPE SCALE 



189 



Forbes or Cherry Scale {Aspi- 
diotus forhesi, Fig: 103) — Widely distrib- 
uted, attacking all orchard trees but rarely 
occurring in sufficient numbers to be con- 
sidered serious. Very similar to the scale 
last described and to the European fruit- 
scale, but when found on cherry appears 
to be more shining. It has a grayish rim 
and usually appears flatter than the other 
closely related species. Hibernates as a 
partly grown insect. Eggs laid in late 
April and through May, and "young hatch 
the last of May and in early June. Two 
broods, young again appearing in August 
and September. 

Treatment — Same as for San Jose scale. 

Grape Scale (Aspidiotus uvce) — 
Occurs not uncommonly throughout all 
grape-growing regions ; rarely becomes a 
serious pest. The scales are usually found 
on vines from ground up to end of the 
second year's growth, ^yhen abundant 
they cover surface so that it appears to 
have had a ragged coat of whitewash, and in such cases vines need immediate atten- 
tion. '•' Female scale is flat, nearly circular, about -^ inch long, pale yellowish 
brown or dingy white. When removed, a conspicuous white speck upon bark 
marks its former position." (Forbes.) Winters as an egg beneath old female scale, 
and the eggs begin hatching about middle of May ; one brood a year. 

Treatment — A spray of whale-oil soap (1 to 7) or of 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion applied 
at time young are hatching will kill them easilj'. 




Fig. 103. Forbes Scale: a, natural size on cherry 
twig; b, female scale; c, male scale. (Forbes.) 



THE LESSER FRUIT SCALES 

Oyster-shell Scale {Mytilaspis pomortmi, Fig. 104) — All fruit states, 
infesting many fruit and shade trees, and several shrubs. The common name quite 
appropriately describes the shape of the female scale, which is about \ inch long. 
Scale is brownish or grayish white and two or three times as long as wide. In the 



190 



IMPOETAXT SCALE INSECTS 



winter the white or yellowish 
eggs may be found beneath 
old scale of female. These 
hatch in late spring and soon 
attach themselves to young 
twigs and smaller branches. 
The male scale is much smaller 
and more parallel-sided, as may 
be seen from Fig. 104. 

Treatment— Spray young scales 
with kerosene emulsion in early 
summer. Thorough treatment of 
affected trees with whale-oil soap, 
or with the lime-sulphur-and-salt 
wash before buds open in spring 
will perhaps be effective May be 
kept in check if closely watched 
and not permitted to get a foot- 
hold. 

Scurfy Scale {Chionas- 
pis furfurus, Fig. 105) — All 
fruit states, especially infest- 
ing apple, crab-apple, pear, 
and quince ; occurs, however, 
on many other trees and some- 
times on shrubs. This is the most common of orchard scales and may be readily 
known by its whitish color — in winter turning to dirty white. The female is 
ovate in shape, while the male is fully twice as long as broad, with parallel sides, 
and is also nearer snow-white in color. Insect hibernates in e,gg stage under female 
scale ; eggs when crushed yield a reddish fluid. One brood a year in North, but 
more have been reported from South. Winged males appear in September, and 
soon thereafter eggs are laid and female dies ; young begin to appear by the middle 
of May or soon after. 

Treatment — Spray in the spring, immediately after eggs begin to hatch, as for oyster-shell 
scale. This scale rarely needs controlling unless it be present in large numbers on young ti'ees. 

Peach Scale {Diaspis pentagona) — Occurs throughout South and as far 
north as Pennsylvania, advancing northward each year. Attacks peach, plum. 




Fig. 104. Oyster-shell Scale: a, female scale, under side, showing the 
insect and its eggs within; 6, same, from above; c, same, natural 
size; d, e, male scale, enlarged and exact size. (Howard, United 
States Department of Agriculture.) 



PEACH LECANIUM, RASPBERRY SCALE 



191 




Fig. 105. Scurfy Scale: a, b, female and male 
scales, natural size ; c, d, same, enlarged. 
(Howard, United States Department of Agri- 
culture.) 



cherry, and some other plants. This lias^ 
sometimes been called the •"whitewash" 
scale, from the peculiar appearance it gives 
to trees badly infested. The female scale is 
grayish white, quite flat and irregularly cir- 
cular; male scale, elongate, three times as long 
as broad, and snow white. Eggs are laid in 
May, last of June, and in August. Females 
hatch from last brood of eggs and hibernate 
partly or fully developed, but males pass win- 
ter in egg stage. 

Treatment — Spray as for other scales that 
hibernate as eggs. A winter ti'eatment is also ad- 
visable. 

Peach Lecaniuin {Lecanmm nigro- 
fasciatum, Fig. 106) — New York and Penn- 
sylvania, southward to Virginia, and west to Arkansas and New Mexico. Attacks 
peach, plum, and, more rarely, apple. " This insect, formerly known as L. persicm, 
is one of the largest of the scale insects, being about \ inch long and two thirds as 
wide. It is elliptical in outline and strongly convex." (Banks.) Its color is dull 
greenish brown, sometimes marked with distinct darker bands. Female hibernates 
as an adult and lays eggs about last of May, young hatching from early June to 
mid- July. Young larvse are very fat, pale yellow, with a 
marginal rim. They become stationary in a short time, 
and the winged m&les appear by the latter part of July. 

Treatment — Treat in July 
with kerosene emulsion, or in 
winter with some one of the 
stronger solutions Very easily 
kept in check. 

Rose or Raspberry 
Scale {Aulacaspis rosce) — 
Quite widely distributed, at- 
tacking not only rose and 
raspberry but blackberry and 
other plants belonging to 

til is familv Tti '^(^w Tpvcov ^^^- ^^- Peach Lecanium : adults at right, young at left. 
LUlb lamiiy. in i\ ew J ei sey Howard, United States Department of Agriculture.) 




(After 



192 SMALL-FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES 

it hibernates in the egg, but farther south some of the eggs hatch in fall, and in 
Florida it usually passes the winter beneath its scale as a partly developed insect. 
The scale is stiowy white, circular in outline, and has a dark center. On account 
of its whiteness it may be readily seen on twigs and branches of infested plants. 

Treatment — The cleaning up of canes, dead wood, and rubbish in the fall will usually serve 
to control this insect ; kerosene emulsion spray may be used effectively at time of egg hatching. 
Insect rarely becomes a serious pest. 

VI. SMALL FRUITS AND VINES 
THE GRAPE 

(a) Important Injukious Insects 

Grape-vine Flea-beetle {Haltica chalybea)— Occurs wherever grapes are 
grown east of the Rocky Mountains. On the Pacific Coast a nearly related species 
does the same damage to buds and leaves. Beetles, Avliich are small and steely 
blue or greenish blue in color, appear in May and June on buds and leaves. The 
grub of this beetle is slender ; varies from yellow to yellowish brown in color, and 
has a black head ; grows to be about f inch long ; and feeds on buds and leaves with 
adult beetles. 

Treatment — Spray vines with Paris green (1 pound to 50 gallons water) before buds open 
in spring, and later, when leaves are out, with regular Paris green mixture (1 pound to 150 gallons 
water). Add lime to first spray — 1 or 2 pounds to each 50 gallons of mixture. 

Grape Root-worm {Fidia viticida) — Distributed quite generally over the 
United States. The life history of this beetle has been worked out by Prof. F. M. 
Webster in Ohio. Eggs are laid on slightly loosened parts of bark early in year ; 
and young, upon hatching, drop to ground, afterward finding their way to small 
fibrous upper roots through cracks in ground. Adult beetles feed on foliage early 
in year, doing considerable damage by eating irregular holes in upper surface of 
leaves. Larvae at first feed on fibrous roots, but as they grow larger pass to large 
roots and gnaw off bark, Avorking their way downward. In early autumn they 
form a little case near the root upon which they were feeding, and remain in this 
until the following spring, when they pupate, emerging in June. 

Treatment — Remedial measures have not been imiformly successful. Spray foliage with 
strong arsenical mixtures, using lime to prevent burning. This will destroy many adults. Keep 
ground well cultivated, so as to have a deep powdery soil over roots. This will help keep larvae 
from reaching food. 



THE GRAPE 



193 



Grape Cane-borer or Apple Twig-borer {AmjMcerus hicaudafus) 
— Occurs principally in Mississippi Valley states and Texas ; closely related species 
works in the same manner in Pacific Coast states. 

Eggs laid on stems (usually dead or dying) of grape or other plants early in 
spring by beetles that hibernated in burrows cut in twigs of apple and other fruit 
trees. Larva lives in these dead stems until autumn, when it pupates, and a cylin- 
drical brown adult beetle soon appears. Adult leaves gi-ape stems and goes to some 
fruit tree, wliere it bores a channel several inches in length in a small twig, in 
which it passes the winter. 

Treatment — Carefully prune diseased wood and burn it; clean up all neglected brier 
patches, as these are also breeding places for the insect. 

Grape Leaf-hopper {TypliJocyha vifis, T. 
comes, and others, Fig. 107) — Often erroneously 
called ''Grape Thrips.*' Several species of leaf- 
hoppers infest grape-vine. Leaves are injured by 
their sucking the juices, and first show light spots, 
which later turn brown, the leaf appearing "burned." 
If plant is now disturbed, myriads of tiny insects, 
rosy red, green, and yellow will arise and then settle 
back on the leaves. The young insects are usually 
paler in color, and very active. 

Treatment — Go through vineyard with a screen, or even 
a palm-leaf fan, upon which has been smeared coal-tar, and 
as you go, disturb the vines and keep the fan or screen con- 
stantly moving. Many insects will be caught in this way. 
Spray the vines with kerosene emulsion, 10 per cent, strength. 
at the same time jarring the vines to disturb the "hoppers," 
and filling air with spray. 

Grape-vine Phylloxera {Phylloxera vasfa- 
trtx) — Eastern States and parts of California; lare 
elsewhere in United States. This is one of the root- 
infesting plant-lice that form galls on roots of plant 

and sometimes also on under sides of leaves. Insects winter mostly as immature 
wingless forms on roots. In spring they rapidly increase in size and soon begin to 
lay eggs. Young from these eggs are wingless, and as soon as grown lay eggs, 
several generations of this character occurring and rapidly spreading over roots. 
In midsummer a form appears that crawls up to the surface, acquires wings, and 




Fig. lOr. drape-vine Leaf-hoppers : 
above, young of different ages; at 
I ight, adult of Typhlocyba vulne- 
•ata; at left, T. conies. (Lugger.) 



194 SMALL-FRUIT INSECTS AXD DISEASES 

migrates to other vines, laying eggs on under side of leaves. The female of this 
generation lays a single egg, from which hatches a form like that which had 
wintered over. 

Treatment — American vines can usually resist the attack, but should any treatment be 
necessary apply carbon bisulphide. Inject this substance — i ounce to each injection — in four or 
five places on each square yard of surface over the whole vineyard. Put the fluid 8 to 12 inches 
deep and not less than a foot from base of vines, closing the holes tightly with the foot ; repeat 
operation every year until insects are destroyed. 

Grape-berry Moth (Eudemia botrana) — All grape states. Larvas of first 
brood feed on leaves and blossoms ; the next brood attacks fruit, burrowing in pulp 
and producing appearance like black rot. 

Treatment — Arsenical spraying for first brood. For second brood, bag the fruit; leave 
none on vines to decay ; keep vineyard clear of trash. 

Grape Leaf-folder {Desmia i)uiculali.s) — East of the Rocky Mountains. 
Leaves are folded double and tightly fastened by a small greenish larva which 
skeletonizes them from the upper side. Moth black, spotted with white; about 
an inch across wings. 

Treatment — Clean culture ; hand-picking of affected leaves ; burning rubbish. 

Eig:lit-spotted Forester {Alypia odomaculata) — East of Rocky Moun- 
tains. Especially common on Virginia creeper and often on grape leaves. Cater- 
pillars are light brown, with black dots ; occur on leaves in spiiug, and are some- 
times veiy abundant. Moth, which appears in midsummer, has fore-wings black, 
with two yellow blotches ; hind-wings varying, but with two white spots. 

Treatment — Arsenical sprays when first noticed, and hand-picking. 

Rose-chafer {Macrodadylus subspinosus) — States east of Colorado and 
north of Virginia and Tennessee. Attacks many plants. Blossoms are destroyed 
and leaves eaten by this awkward, long-legged, light-brown beetle (^ inch long) 
early in the spring. 

Treatment — Vines maybe covered with netting and clusters bagged; hand-pick from grapes 
and other plants. Spraying rarely seems to be of value. Insect often infests Spiraea, hence this 
may be used as a trap crop. 

Grape-vine SaAV-fly {Ble7inoca7npa pygmcea) — All grape states. Slugs are 
yellow, with black dots, and feed in the same way as the currant saw-fly, the same 
treatment sufficing when they become abundant. 

(b) Impoetant Diseases of the GFrape 
The following has been recommended as good practice in controlling grape diseases : 



GRAPE AND CURRANT 195 

Spray with Bordeaux mixture (a) just as innk tips of first leaves appear, (b) ten days or two 
weeks later, before blossoms oj)en, (c) just after blossoming, (d) again in from ten to fourteen days. 
If another treatment seems to be necessary, use ammoniacal copper-carbonate solution after the fruit 
is well formed. 

Downy Mildew (Phmnopora viticola) — All grape regions. This disease 
attacks all -parts of the vine, on fruit causing what is known as brown rot, the 
berries shriveling and drying. 

Treatment — For the mildews and rots that infest the grape, Bordeaux mixture is always 
successful if applied at the right times. 

Powdery Mildew ( Uncinula spiralis) — Attacks both foliage and fruit, 
especially in midsummer, portions attacked being covered with the web-like threads 
of the fungus. 

Black Rot {Lcestadia Bidwellii) — One of the most common, wide-spread, and 
destructive of grape diseases. It chiefly attacks the fruit, causing dark spotting 
and rotting of the green berries, and may also work on leaves, petioles, and cluster 
Ijranches, producing elongated dead spots. Rotted fruits dry and hang over winter 
on the vines, thus carrying the fungus over to the next season. 

Treatment — Spraying treatment above outlined will control this disease. Destroy all fruit 
affected by the rot. 

Chlorosis, Yellow Leaf — Disease shown by yellowing, browning, and 
dropping of leaves. Eventually kills vine. Supposed to be due to excess of lime 
in the soil. Small amounts of sulphate of iron have been recommended. Plant 
resistant stocks, such as Coiicord, Catawba, Delaware, Moore's Early, and Niagara. 
Some other varieties also may be resistant. 

Aiitliracnose, *^ Bird's-eye Rot" {Sphaceloma ampelinum) — DarK 
spots foi-m on surface of leaf, cracking tissue and causing well-defined sunken spots 
which usually have a lighter-colored center. 

Treatment — Disease is entirely amenable to Bordeaux sprays. Swab surfaces of canes, ea^ly 
in spring before buds open, with a warm saturated solution of sulphate of iron, to which has been 
added 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid. Handle with care to avoid acid burns. 

THE CURRANT 

(a) Important Injurious Insects 

Currant Saw-fly {Pristophora grossularice), Currant-worm (Nematus 
rihesii) — All fruit states. Small four-winged flies, with deep-yellow bodies. Lay 
eggs eai-ly in spring on under side of currant leaves along ribs. Larvae feed on leaf 
tissue and, when abundant, rapidly defoliate a bush. 



196 SMALL-FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES 

Treatment — Underspray with hellebore (1 ounce to 2 gallons water) when worms are very 
young ; if not checked, use again at double this strength. For other currant worms, arsenical 
spraying in spring is required. 

Four-lined Leaf-bug {Pcecilocapsus lineatus) — Bright yellow bug, y\ 
inch long, with black antennae and two black stripes on each wing-cover; young, 
bright red. Eggs are laid near growing tips of currant and other closely related 
plants, hatching the following May. Bugs suck juices of plant, especially working 
on leaves. 

Treatment — Jar off in early morning into pans of kerosene and water , cut off tips contain- 
ing eggs , use 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion on young. 

Currant Stem-borers {Sesia Upullforinis, Saw-fly Borers) — Through- 
out the United States. The larva of the former species attacks lilac and currant, 
.boring in the old wood. The saw-fly borers work in yoiing shoots. 

Treatment — Cut out and burn infested stems, which may be recognized early in spring by 
wilting of leaves soon after coming out. 

(b) Diseases of the Cuerant 

Several leaf-spots and a mildew attack currant. They are amenable to treat- 
ment with Bordeaux mixture. Use same general treatment in spraying as for grape 
mildews. 

THE RASPBERRY, STRAWBERRY, AND CRANBERRY 

Important Insects and Diseases 

Cane Maggots {PhorUa sp.) and Cane-borers {Oherea sp.) — Can be 
controlled by cutting out diseased canes. 

Saw-fly {Monophadnus ruhi) — Larvge may be brushed from bushes or treated 
with hellebore spray (1 ounce to 1 gallon water). 

Raspberry Anthracnose ( Collet otrichium venetum) — All states. This 
fungous disease appears on bark, and occasionally on leaves and fruit of raspberry, 
blackberry, and other closely related plants. Small purple spots will first be seen 
on canes near ground. These spread, acquire a grayish white center, and later 
attain large size, having purple outer edges. 

Treatment — Carefully examine all nursery stock before planting. If disease is present, 
either destroy stock or dip in Bordeaux mixture. When present on planted stock, trim closely, 
burn all old canes and refuse, and treat young shoots with Bordeaux mixture. 




STRAWBERRY AND CRANBERRY 197 

Strawl)erry Crown-borer {Tyloderma fraga- 
ricB, Fig. 108) — Occurs in nearly all strawberr}' regions. 
Eggs are laid in June or July. Larva burrows downward, 
eating substance of crown in which it remains until full 
grown. Beetle emerges in August, and hibernates through 
winter. It is about ^ inch long, brown, with several darker fig. los. strawberry crown- 

T 11 •,! T 111 borer: a, larva; 6, c, adult 

spots, and marked with lines and dots. beetle. (After Forbes.) 

Treatment — Dig up and burn infested vines ; transplant frequently. 
Strawberry-weevil {Anthonomus signatus) — All strawberry regions. A 
very troublesome pest that feeds in larval stage on flower buds. Beetle a small 
black insect with a hard snout or beak. Lays eggs in bud and then so punctures 
the flower stem that it dries and breaks off. A number of wild flowers are attacked 
in like manner. 

Treatment — Plant chiefly pistillate varieties, covering, until danger i.s over, the staminate 
varieties that are necessary. 

Strawberry Grubs — Larvte of May beetles, feeding on roots. Avoid use 
of sod land for berries until it has been several years in cultivation. 

Strawberry Leaf-spot {Sphcerella fragari(p) — Also called rust or leaf- 
blight. This fungus may be kept in check by the use of Bordeaux mixture when 
plants are first set out and 3 or 4 times thereafter. vSpray in spring before blossom- 
ing, and again about two weeks later; burn off beds in fall and destroy all old leaves. 

Cranberry Fire-worm ( Teras mmuta) — All cranberry regions, attacking 
cranberry, apple, huckleberry, and other plants. On cranberries this larva often 
does much damage by spinning up and eating tips of growing shoots. Larva is 
small, green, with black head. Another worm {Rliojmhota vacciana), closely resem- 
bling it but with a yellow head, also does considerable damage to cranberry plants. 

Treatment — Prof. J. B. Smith states that the only successful treatment is that of keeping 
the bogs covered with water until rather late — "until at least the middle of May." 

VII. SHADE TREES 

IMPORTANT INJURIOUS INSECTS 

White-marked Tnssock-inoth {Orgyia hucostigma, Fig. 109) — All of 
Eastern and Central United States. Caterpillar does great damage to shade trees 
in city parks and along streets, and also attacks fruit trees. Adult moth is a pale 
ashy-gray insect ; the female, quite stout and wingless, the males, with ash-gray 

14 



1U8 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES 



wings and feathered antennae. During 
July and August there may be seen on 
leaves, trunks, and branches of trees a 
silky-white cocoon, often partly hidden 
in crevices of the bark and later dis- 
colored by soot and dirt, and from this 
cocoon soon emerge the adult insects. 
Female rarely travels far, and usually 
lays eggs on old cocoon — 100 to 500 in 
a place, fastened together and enveloped 
in a white frothy substance, which soon 
hardens and becomes impervious to 
rains and snows. Young larvee hatch 
in April or May in warm springs, and 
immediately begin feeding on buds and 
By July they ai'e about full size, and then and in August make 
The larva is from f to 1-^ inches in length when full grown ; 




Fig. 109. Tussock-moth: larva above, adult female at 
left, adult male at right. (After Forbes.) 



young leaves. 

their cocoons 

general color yellowish, the body with three darker stripes, and the head brilliant 

red ; three long black plumes, two near the head and one at the anal end, and four 

large white tufts along the center of the back, standing out prominently from tlie 

remainder of the long, scattered, yellowish pubescence. 

Treatment — Destroy egg-masses in fall and winier, and use arsenical sprays early in spring. 
In the North there is probably but one brood ; two are reported in the South. 

Gipsy Moth {Porthetria dispar) — At present confined to New England, and 
principally to Massachusetts. Without doubt one of the most serious of the im- 
ported pests, feeding on all kinds of shade and fruit trees and on shrubbery. Eggs 
are laid in clusters of 400 to 500 on trees, fences, and in various other places, each 
cluster being covered with yellow hairs from the female's body. Larvae hatch early 
in spring and feed on foliage. When full grown they are about 3 inches long, have 
a mottled gray appearance, and are covered with long yellow and black hairs which 
arise from tubercles, blue at the anterior and red at the posterior end of the body. 
They pupate in July, and the moths emerge in August,' soon laying eggs for the 
next year's brood. Adult female has whitish Avings with dark spots along outer 
margins, but male is darker, and both have dark curved lines and spots on wings. 

Treatment — Destroy egg-masses and cocoons; spray with arsenites as soon as caterpillars 
hatch in the spring. 



FOREST TEXT-CATERPILLAE, BAGWORM 



199 



Brown-tailed Moth {Buproctis vhri/son-Jiea) — A most dangerous shade- 
aiid fruit-tree pest, at present confined to some parts of Massachusetts. Egg-masses 
may be found in midsummer, 200 to 300 in a cluster, attached to the under side of a 
leaf, and usually near end of branch. Cluster is covered with dense mass of brown 
hairs from female's body. Larvie hatch in August and feed near ends of branches 
in colonies, drawing leaves together mto a sort of tent in which they hibernate, 
beginning early in spring to feed on young leaves and buds. Full-grown larvae are 
dark brown, mottled and spotted with orange, and are clothed with reddish brown 
hairs ; two rows of dense white tufts stand prominently out of upper side of body. 
Pupate in June, moths soon emerging. Adults have white wings and female a brown 
tip at end of body. 

Treatment — Destroy tents in fall and winter by collecting or burning out, and collect and 
destroy egg-masses in summer. 

Forest Tent-caterpillar [CHsiocampa disstria) — Ranges from New York 
westward and southward to Texas and Xew Mexico, attacking both fruit and shade 
trees. Eggs are laid by brown moths in July and August, in belts encircling 
smaller twigs of many shade and fruit trees ; from these egg-masses in spring hatch 
larvae which, when full grown, are dark and hairy, with silver spots along back and 
a blue head. Larvae live in colonies, but contrary to their common name do not 
spin a tent] sometimes a slight web is made along a limb. When not feeding they 
collect in bunches on trunk 



or large limbs. Cocoons are 
formed in June and fastened 
to the bark or at the forks of 
small limbs. One brood a year. 

Treatment — Destroy egg-masses 
when on fruit trees or shi'ubbery ; 
kill caterpillars when they are massed 
on limbs or trunk, jarring them from 
trees, then collecting and destroying 
them. Spraying would be a costly 
process when they are working in 
large trees. 



Bag worm ( Thyridopte- 
ryx ephemerccformis, Fig. 110) 
— From New York westward 
to Mississippi River and south- 




FiG. no Bagworm: a, larva, removed from case; 6, chrysalis; c. 
adult female taken from case; rf, adult male; e, cross-section or 
bag and female within, latter full of eggs; /, bag and larva from 
evergreen; g, very young larvae in their cases. (After Forbes.) 



200 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES 

ward 'to the Gi\\i. Most common on evergreen shade-trees, such as cedar, pine, 
and arbor-vitse, but feeds also on many others, and on fruit trees of all kinds. 

Cases may be readily recognized on trees in winter. They are oval, soft, sack- 
like bodies, an inch or more in length, pointed at both ends, and attached by one 
end to a twig. Eggs hatch in May and June and the larva immediately com- 
mences a case, forming it from bits of leaf and stem. In early fall it pupates in 
this case. The males, which are dark moths with semi transparent wings, emerge 
and mate with the females. These have no wings and never leave cases until 
after laying eggs — and then only to fall out and die. 

Treatment — Destroy cases in winter by picking from trees. They may be piled in a con- 
venient spot away from trees until later in the spring, when all parasites have had a chance to 
emerge, and then be destroyed. Arsenical sprays early in the summer will aid in controlling the 
worms. 

Canker-worms, Fall {Anisopteryx pometaria) and Spring {Paleacrita 
vernata, Figs. 91, 92) — Canker-worms occur throughout the United States and attack 
many kinds of fruit and shade trees. (For descriptions see Ajjple Insects, page 172. ) 

Treatment — Band trees the first warm days late in winter or in very early spring. In case 
of threatened injury from fall species, banding must be done in fall before eggs are laid. A suc- 
cessful means of banding is as follows : Put a narrow band of rough cotton batting around the 
tree, cutting the bark smooth if it is very rough and uneven. Around this tie an 8-inch band 
of building or tarred paper, and on this spread a thin layer of ordinary cheap printer's ink, to 
which a little cai--oil has been added to render it more sticky. If the ink gets crusted over, 
another coat of the car-oil will be required. The last of May, or when danger is over, these 
bands may be easily cut from the trees, leaving them clean and free from any sticky substance. 
Avoid putting sticky preparations directly on the trees, as many of them are very injjarious. 
Where worms have already appeared on the leaves arsenical sprays may be used. 

Elm Leaf-beetle {Galerucella luteola, Fig. Ill) — Occurs commonly in 
New England and Middle Atlantic States and is gradually spreading westward. 
Appears to prefer English elms. Both beetles and larvffi feed on the elm leaves 
and have proved to be serious pests, especially in cities and towns. Beetle is 
yellowish, with black stripes, and about \ inch long ; appears early in spring, and 
begins laying eggs on leaves in May. Larvse finally attain nearly the color of mature 
beetle. When full grown they puss down tree and pupate in ground. 

Treatment — Arsenical sprays applied early on under side of leaves just after buds burst, 
and several times more if necessary. Kill larvae in latter part of June, when they are clustered on 
larger limbs and trunk preparatory to pupating. 

Cottonwood and Poplar Borers (species belonging to several genera) 
— These insects lay eggs on trunk of tr^e or near a wound, the larvae hatching 



ELM, WALNUT, AND MAPLE PESTS 



201 




^^ 




Fig. 111. Elm Leaf-beetle: a, egg; 6, larva; c, adult; e, egg; g, larva; j, pupa; k, adult; e, j/, J, fc, enlarged; 
/, h, i, 1, details. (From Riley, United States Department of Agriculture.) 

therefrom burrowing into the trunk or limbs of tlie tree and often killing it. 
Larvae may be destroyed by running a wire into their burrows. 

Cecroi)ia {Affacus cecrojjia, Fig. 112) — Found attacking walnut and many 
other shade trees during latter part of summer. It is a large green worm with red 
and yellow tubercles on upper side of body. It pupates in a dense silken cocoon 
among branches, or at base of tree on ground. Larva? often defoliate shade trees 
in parks and along boulevards. 

Treatment — Hand-picking or arsenical spraying. Gather cocoons in fall and destroy. 

Elm Scale (Chionaspis americana) — Female scale fawn-color until late in 
the year, when it becomes a dirty white. Much resembles scurfy scale but is more 
convex. Male scale pure white, sides nearly parallel, narrow and three-ridged. 
Eggs purplish, and concealed beneath old female scale. Insect hibernates in the 
egg stage, hatching about May 1st. 

Treatment — Kerosene emulsion applied early in spring, just as eggs are beginning to hatch. 

Cottony Maple-scale {Pulvinaria inmimerahilis) — 
Quite common on maple and other shade trees through- 
out the United States. Usually noticed as a 
white cottony mass on under side 
of small limbs and twigs ; later in 
year young scales may be found 
on under side of leaves arranged 
along ribs, but without any cottony 
covering. They pass to limbs and fig. 112. cecropia larva. 




202 BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 

twigs, and eggs are laid under the cottony covering, hatching in spring and early 
summer. 

Treatment — Trees may be freed from the large scales by fastening a sponge or cloth on the 
end of a pole, saturating it in lierosene, and swabbing the scale from the under side of the limbs. 

Oyster-shell Scale {Mytilaspis pomorum) — See Apple Insects. 

Walnut Scale {Aspidiotus juglans-regim) — Well distributed over the 
United States. While this may be found at times on almost any of the fruit trees, 
it chiefly infests walnut, locust, and other shade trees. It is the largest of the 
"ring and nipple" scales, is irregularly circular in outline, and pale gray or dirty 
white in color. 

Treatment— Same as for San Jose scale, if it becomes abundant. 



O • O . V . ^^^'-^^U^ 



PUBLICATIONS ON INJURIOUS INSECTS AND 

PLANT DISEASES 

Apple Rots of Illinois. By George P Clinton. Bulletin 69. Illinois Agricultural 

Experiment Station, Urbana, 111 

A thorough treatment of the apple rots, which, though written for Illinois, is generally 
applicable. 

Asparagus Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 61. United States Department of Agriculture . 

This general treatise includes short accounts of the insects affecting the asparagus plant, 
and suggests means of destruction. 

Black Rot of Cabbage. Farmers' Bulletin 68. United States Department of Agri- 
culture 

Boll Worm of Cotton. Bulletin 29, Division of Entomology. United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 10.05 

Butterflies and Moths Injurious to Fruit-Producing Plants. By Otto Lugger. 

Bulletin 65. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, &i. AMi\iony Park, Minn. . 

Short accounts of these insects, with many text illustrations. 
Butterfly Book, The. By W. J. Holland. Doubleday, McChire & Co., N. Y. . . 3.00 

Gives short accounts of all the important butterflies found in the United States, describes 
them, and gives food plants of larvte where known. Is illustrated with 48 color-plates and 
many text figures. 

Carbon Bisulphide as an Insecticide. Farmers' Bulletin 145. United States Depart- 
ment (f Agriculture 

Chinch Bug, The. Bulletin 15, New Series, Division of Entomology. United Stales 

Department of Agriculture -10 



BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 208 

CoLEOPTERA, OR Beetles. By Otto Lugger. Bulletin 66. Minnesota Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn 

Condensed Handbook of the Diseases op Cultivated Plants in Ohio. By 

A. D. Selby. Bulletin 121. Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio . 

Gives a concise aiCDunt of all the principal plant diseases, a general account of the manner 
of attack, a table of ins 'cticides with directions for preparation, and a spray calendar. Calen- 
dar by Greene, Selby, and Webster. 

Destructive Locusts. Bulletin 25, Division of Entomology. United States Department 

cf Agriculture $0.15 

Diseases op Field and Garden Crops. By W. G. Smith. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1.50 

Economic Entomology. By J. B. Smith. /. B. Lippincott <& Co., Philadelphia . . . 2.50 
Designed as a handbook for the farmer and fruit grower, and a text-book for the student. 
Contains chapters on general structure of insects, farm practice with reference to keeping their 
ravages in check, insecticides, machinery, preventives, and descriptions of injurious insects. 
Illustrated with more than 400 figures. 

Economic Entomology op the Sugar Beet. By S. A. Forbes and C. A. Hart. Bul- 
letin 60. Illinois Agricultural Erperiment Statioii, Urhana, III 

Very full and accurate account of all the insects attacking the sugar beet in this country. 
Illustrated with many figures. 

Entomology for Beginners. By A. S. Packard. /. B. Lippincott d- Co., Philadelphia. 1.75 

Written as a text-book, yet contains much that is of general value. 

E.xperiments with Insecticides for the San Jose Scale. By S. A. Forbes. Bul- 
letin 71. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station 

Fall Army Worm and Variegated Cutworm. Bullelin 29, New Series, Division of 

Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture 

Fully treats these two well-known enemies, and gives list of food-plants and means of 
control. 

Fumigation Methods. By Willis G. Johnson. Orange Judd Co., 'N. Y 1.00 

A practical treatise dealing thoroughly with the subject in its various aspects. Of especial 
value to nurserymen, millers, and greenhouse owners. Contains also a general review of 
United States laws relating to nursery and orchard inspection, and an abstract of foreign 
regulations. 

Gipsy Moth in America. Bulletin 11, New Series, Division of Entomology. United 

States Department of Agriculture .05 

A full account of the introduction of this pest, the nature of its ravages, and the means of 
control. 

Grain Smuts, The. Farmers' Bulletin 75. United States Department of Agriculture . 

Hemiptera, or Bugs. By Otto Lugger. Bulletin 69. Minnesota Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn 

Hessian Fly, The. Bulletin 16, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States 

Department of Agriculture .10 

Exhaustive treatment, including full bibliography. 

Household Insects. Bulletin 4, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States 

Departtnent of Agriculture 



204 BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 

Insect Book, The. By L. O. Howard. Douhleday, Page <fe Co., N. Y |3.00 

Gives short accounts of many of the more important insects of the United States. A com- 
panion book to "The Butterfly Book." Contains 48 plates and about 300 text figures. Popu- 
larly written and well illustrated. 

Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat. Farmers' Bulletin 133. Uniled States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 

Insect Enemies of the Grape. Farmers' Bulletin 70. United States Dejjartment of 

Agriculture 

Treats of life histories and means of combating nine of the most serious pests attacking 
the grape. 

Insect Life. By^. H. Comstock. D. Appleto7i <& Co., l!i. Y 11.75 

The first part of this attractive book is designed as a course of study in insect life. The lat- 
ter part contains directions for the collection and preservation of insects. 

Insects Affecting Domestic Animals. Bulletin 5, New Series, Division of Entomology. 

United States DejJartment of Agriculture 

Treats of the insects affecting horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, dogs, and other domestic animals. 
Many illustrations are given and descriptions are so written that most of the insects will be 
readily recognized. 

Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. Farmers' Bulletin 47. United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 

Insects Affecting the Tobacco Plant. Farmers' Bulletin 120. United States De- 
partment of Agriculture 

Insects Injurious to Farm and Garden Crops. By Hopkins and Rumsey. Bulletin 

44. West Virginia Agricultural Exjieriment Station, Morgantowu, W. Va. . . . 

Gives plainly and briefly character of injuries, insect responsible for each, and means of 
prevention and remedy. 

Insects Injurious to Fruits. By William Saunders. J. B. Lippincott <fc Co., Phila- 
delphia 2.00 

Though written several years ago, this is still the best work on the subject published. 
Treats insects attacking apple, peach, plum, cherry, orange, raspberry, strawberry, currant, 
etc. Many illustrations. 

Insects Injurious to Garden and Orchard Crops. Bulletin 19, New Series, Divi- 
sion of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture .10 

Insects Injurious to Garden Crops. Bulletin 23, New Series, Division of Entomol- 
ogy. United States Department of Agriculture .10 

This bulletin, like several others mentioned later, deals with recently-discovered facts 
regarding many of the more important insects in their relations to the farmer, gardener, and 
fruit grower. 

Insects Injurious to Ornamental Plants. Bulletin 27, New Series, Division of Ento- 
mology. United States Depjartment of Agriculture .10 

Insects Injurious to Staple Crops. By E. D wight Sanderson. John Wiley & Sons, 

N. Y 1.50 

a book for the practical farmer. One of the most thorough of its kind recently issued. 
Treats of the life histories, habits, enemies, and ravages of insects affecting grains, grasses, and 
roots, cotton, tobacco, and hops, the means of combating, and includes a chapter on insecti- 
cides. 



I 



BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 205 

Insects Injurious to Stored Grains. Farmers' Bulletin 45. United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 

Insects, Study OP. By J. H. Comstock. Comstock PubUshing Co.,\\h?LQ^,'^. Y . . . $ 3.75 

Larger Apple-tree Borers. Circular 33, Second Series, Division of Entomology. 

United SUites Department of Agriculture 

Treats of the Round-headed, Flat-headed, and Spotted Apple-tree Borers. 

Laws concerning Injurious Insects. Bulletin 13, New Series United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture {1S98) .05 

Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil. Farmers' Bulletin 130. United States Department of 

Agriculture 

Miscellaneous Results. Bulletins 7, 10, 23, New Series, Division of Entomology. 

United States Department of Agriculture Each. .10 

These treat of various insects and significant features of their life histories. Many of 
those treated are of considerable economic importance. 

Orthoptera, or Grasshoppers, Locusts, Crickets, and Cockroaches, of Minnesota. 
By Otto Lugger. Bulletin 55. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, St. 
Anthony Park, Minn ' 

Peach Leaf-curl. Bulletin 20, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. 

United States Department of Agriculture .25 

Full account of this disease, its distribution, and remedies applicable. 

Peach TwiG-BORER. Farmers' Bulletin 80. United States Department of Agriculture . 

Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette. Bulletin 1, Division of Vegetable Physiology 

and Pathology. United States Department of Agriculture . . ■ .20 

Periodical Cicada. Bulletin 14, Division of Entomology. United States Department of 

Agriculture .15 

Treats of the "Seventeen-year Locust,'" its broods, and their life history. Useful to the 
fruit grower to enable him to avoid losses in " locust years." 

Potato Diseases. Farmers' Bulletin 91. United States Department of Agticulture . . 

Principal Insects Liable to be Distributed on Nursery Stock. Bulletin 34, New 

Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture .... 

San Jose Scale. Bulletin 3, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States De- 
partment of Agriculture .10 

Full account (illustrated) of this scale and its enemies. 

Some Common Birds in their Relations to Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 54. 

United States Dtpartment of Agriculture 

Notes on the lives, food, and habits of cuckoos, woodpeckers, crows, blackbirds, and other 
common birds. 

Spraying of Plants. By E. G. Lodeman. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. . . . 1.00 

An unusually exhaustive treatise on methods and results in spraying. 



206 



BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 



Three Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. Farmers' Bulletin 99. United States De- 
partment of Agriculture 

Treats of the Elm Leaf -beetle, Tussock-moth, and Web-worm. 

Trap-lanterns OR "Moth-catchers." By M. V. Slingerland. Bulletin 203. Cornell 

University Agricultural Experiment Station , Ixh&cdi, '^ . Y 

An excellent bulletin, giving the facts about the trap-lanterns. Tells just what they do catch. 

The Division of Entomology, of the United States Department of Agriculture, publishes Cir- 
culars on important insects whenever information is particularly needed. Many of these are still 
available. Among those already published are : Circular 4, The Army Worm ; Circular 9, Canker- 
worms ; Circular 20, The Woolly Aphis of the Apple ; Circular 26, The Pear Slug ; Circuiar 31, 
The Cucumber Beetle ; Circular 37, The Use of Hydrocyanic Acid Gas ; Circular 43, Destruc- 
tive Green Pea-louse. Almost all the bulletins of this division are of value to the farmer. 

The Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology publishes bulletins treating of plant 
diseases, their characters, and the remedies needful in combating them. 

The reports of several of the state entomologists are valuable publications, containing 
accounts of many injurious insects and the most approved methods of treating them. 



Selecting" and Feeding* Farm Animals for Profit 

By Herbert W. Mumpord, B. S. 

Professor of Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, and Chief of Animal 

Husbandry, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station 

I. LEADING BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK 

A stroll through the various exhibits at our leading fairs and expositions tends 
to emphasize the fact that we have a large number of breeds in each department of 
live stock. Those who are interested in animal husbandry from a business stand- 
point have their preferences. They are reasonably familiar with the origin, his- 
tory, and characteristics of their favorite breeds. They are apt to look with too 
much disfavor upon other breeds with which they are less familiar, and at times fail 
to see the weak points in the breeds which they champion. 

It is hardly to be expected that a breeder of pure-bred stock, mucJi less the 
stock farmer, will be equally familiar with all breeds — a life of thorough study 
and closest observation is all too short for such knowledge — yet until one becomes 
fairly conversant with the strong and weak points of the various breeds he could 
hardly be looked u]3on as an intelligent breeder or feeder. It may as well be 
admitted that there is no hest breed of horses, cattle, sheep, or swine. Practically 
all breeds have been developed to meet certain local needs. If the originators have 
followed wise methods the breeds which they have developed to meet their require- 
M'.ents are undoubtedly the best breed from their point of view. But to conclude 
that, because a breed is the best under certain local conditions, it is the best breed 
for all conditions, is an absurd assumption. Every breed has its faults, and no 
breed in existence is so utterly worthless as to possess no redeeming qualities. 
There are but very few breeds, if indeed any, that do not possess advantages in 
certain particulars over all other breeds. 

This then, in the judgment of the author, should be our frame of mind when 
we come to study breeds. We must not expect pei'fection in any breed, and still 
we must demand some advantageous qualities in every bree 

(207) 



208 LEADING BEEEDS OF LIVE STOCK 

The American people are not a nation of strong prejudices, but they are a 
people who are too apt to base their judgments on insufficient evidence. Caution, 
therefore, is necessary that final judgment of the value of a breed be not too quickly 
passed. Impressions of breeds should not be based on the behavior or performance 
of individual animals, but should rather be based upon the possibilities of the best, 
or, at any rate, the average of the breed. 

Oftentimes the selection of a breed hinges upon personal preference. A man 
may select a breed not because he believes it the best, but because it is as good as 
others and suits his fancy. This is a competent reason, for a man seldom succeeds 
with a breed of stock he does not like, while often a man achieves great success 
with a commonplace breed that just " fills his eye." 

In our discussion of the various breeds of improved live stock we shall confine 
ourselves largely to a discussion of the characteristics of the various breeds, as we 
find them, and of their adaptability to certain localities and for particular uses. It 
is evident that in a brief treatise of this nature it will be impossible to go into 
details as to the history and development of these breeds, no matter how important 
or how interesting such facts might be to the reader. 

The farmer and stock-raiser, as distinguished from the breeder of pure-bred 
stock, is interested in the production of animals for the open market, and only to a 
much less extent in animals which are to be used subsequently as breeding animals. 
The stock-raiser, therefore, looks upon pure-bred animals as a means to an end. 
He is interested in those characteristics which, if judiciously made use of, will 
make the common stock of his farm more profitable producers of meat or of other 
animal products. The discussion of the breeds which follows is intended solely for 
the benefit of stock-raisers. Stock breeders require a more intricate and compre- 
hensive knowledge than it is possible to give in the limited space at our disposal. 

BREEDS OF CATTLE 

All the breeds of cattle belong to one or more of the following classes, viz. : 
beef, dairy, and dual purpose. 

The beef breeds are; Shorthorns, Pollei^ Durhams, Herefords, Aberdeen Angus, 
and Galloways. 

The dual j^urpose breeds are Red Polled, Shorthorns, Polled Durhams, Brown 
Swiss, and Devon. 

The dairy breeds are Jerseys, Guernseys, Ayrshires, Holsteins, and Dutch Belted. 



BEEP CATTLE: SHORTHOKNS 



209 



It will be noted that Shorthorns and Polled Durhams are included in both the 
beef and dual purpose class. This is because numerous representatives of each of 
these breeds are distinctly of the beef type, while still others are as certainly of the 
dual purpose type. 

BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 

The leading breeds of beef cattle are the Shorthorns, Fulled Durhams, Here- 
fords, Aberdeen- Angus, and Galloways. 

Shorthorns — Shorthorns have been variously called Teeswater Cattle, Durhams, and 
Shorthorns. It is no longer correct to speak of Shorthorns as Durhams, and this term should not 
longer be used, since it is now applied to a more recently established classification of our improved 
breeds of beef cattle, namely, Polled Durhams. Both the names Durham and Teeswater were 
formerly given the Shorthorns from the fact that the breed originated in the valley of the Tees 
and largely in Durham. They soon spread over the shires of Northumberland, Lincoln, and York. 

At this time it is hard to conceive that but little more than one hundred years ago Shorthorns, 
and in fact all of the older breeds of beef cattle, were scarcely uniform enough to be looked upon 
as distinct breeds. They had little to recommend them to the attention of farmers and breeders 
above the common stock of the country. 

If the literature referring to early agriculture and live-stock conditions may be depended upon, 
the first popular idea of a beef animal was one of huge bulk. It was the bi'eeder who produced the 
largest bullocks regardless of age that received the greatest consideration and patronage. It was 
this characteristic of the Shorthorn as is evidenced in the 
Durham Ox and the White Heifer that Traveled, that first 
brought them into popular favor. This occurred some- 
thing over a century ago, and from that time until this 
Shorthorns have remained the most universally popular 
breed of beef cattle in existence. The idea of the necessity 
of securing enormous size in order to get a profitable beef 
animal has long since been abandoned. Efforts to improve 
the Shorthorn breed have been along the line of getting 
refinement of bone and general form, with early maturing- 
qualities, rather than the increase of bulk, yet without less- 
ening that valuable characteristic of plenty of scale and 
growthiness, Shorthorn characteristics which have ever 
been valuable ones, especially wherever the Shorthorn has 
been used as an improver of native caltle. 

Originators and early improvers of the Shorthorn breed 

recognized the importance of an abundant supply of milk 

and they were careful to preserve, as far as possible, the 

strong milking tendencies of the old Shorthorn stock. So ^m. 113. Shorthorn bull (Merry Hampton 

characteristic of the Shorthorn breed did this milking J??^7^l^^Ti°"l ^^^'^'"^ f ^'^°*''!?H™ mt^ 

. . n , 1, , , , [Vol. XXXIX, A. H. B.] owned b" " 

tendency become that it is undoubtedly true that no breed a. Boland, Grass Lake, Mich.) 




V. 



210 



LEADING BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK 



of beef cattle possesses it to the same extent as do the Shorthorns. While other breeds of beef 
cattle crossed upon the common stock of the country often have a tendency to reduce the produc- 
tion of milk in their offspring, Shorthorns appear to have the opposite influence — in fact, Short- 
horns seem to have the happy faculty of blending admirably vpith native and common stock. No 
other breed of beef cattle will so rapidly improve native or common stock as well-bred Shorthorn 
bulls of creditable individual merit. Even the breeds of beef cattle blend well with the Shorthorn 
blood. The Shorthorn cow, with her deep milking tendencies, makes the best dam for a bullock. 
While the modern Shorthorn has lost many of the faults of those of early times, the breed as 
a whole needs careful attention in the way of selection and weeding out of inferior animals. 
From the very fact that Shorthorns have been so popular and have become so widely disseminated, 
many herds have fallen into the hands of careless feeders and indifferent breeders who have 
allowed their herds to deteriorate so that the average pure-bred Shorthorn is hardly up to the 
standard of the average pure-bred beef animal of the other beef breeds. The most common faults 
among modern Shorthorns are their long legs, their prominent hips, and plain rumps, with a 
tendency to bunch at the tail-head and elsewhere when highly fitted. To be sure, these faults 
are not always present, but as we have said they are all too common. The breed is noted for its 
quiet disposition and, therefore, is well adapted for putting into small feed lots in preparing for 
the market. 

Herefords — The Herefords were named after the shire in the west of England where they 
originated. This country, which was a grass country and largely devoted to dairying, subsequently 
became the home of one of the most profitable and useful breeds of improved live stock for which 
Great Britain has become famous. Lovers of " white faces" look upon Benjamin Tompkins as 

the first improver of Hereford cattle who paid especial 
attention to beef tendencies among the breed. 

The characteristic colors and markings of Herefords 
and their prepotency in transmitting these characteristics to 
their offspring have made them quite popular for crossing 
upon native and common stock, especially upon the range. 
It is generally conceded that no other breed of beef 
cattle quite equals the Herefords as a producer of beef 
when grass alone is depended upon. Herefords, as a rule, 
are closer to the ground, but not quite as massive as the 
Shorthorns, nor as good milkers. They mature rather 
more quickly than do the Shorthorns, but have the same 
tendency to become uneven and patchy when fed long and 
heavily on grain. They are well adapted to good grazing 
lands, but are not suited for conditions requiring cows to 
furnish a liberal amount of milk. They are hardly as quiet 
in disposition as are the Shorthorns. 

Aberdeen- Angus — The Aberdeen - Angus breed 
originated in the eastern part of Scotland under conditions 

Fig. 114. Hereford bull (Dale 66481, sold at well calculated to make a hardy race of cattle. Their con- 
Chicago for $7,500) and cow (Dolly 2d . , . „ ,..„,,-, 
61799, sold, with heifer calf, for $5,000). tinned improvement, from the origin of the breed up to 




BEEF CATTLE: ABERDEEN-ANGUS, GALLOWAYS 



211 




Fig. 115. Polled Angus bull (Woodlawn 
33923) and cow (Lena Estill 3d 22069). 



the present time, was somewhat interrupted, about the j'ear 
1810, by the widespread popularity of Shorthorns in Great 
Britain. It was at one time thought that the breed had 
become almost extinct. It is undoubtedly true that had it 
not been for William McCombie, this valuable race of cattle 
would have lost its identity. Its brief setback, owing to 
the somewhat unnatural boom enjoyed by the Shorthorns 
at an early date, has been more than regained, and it is 
to-day one of the most formidable breeds with which other 
beef cattle are compelled to compete. Its general smooth 
ness of outline, its early maturity, and its even fleshing 
tendencies have made it a general favorite among the pro- 
ducers of beef cattle for the market. No other breed has 
won greater or more signal honors at recent live-stock 
shows than has the Angus breed. It seems next to impos- 
sible to feed an Angus steer in such a way that he will 
become bunchy. They are, therefore, well adapted for 
long feeding periods. The quality of their beef is excel- 
lent, being well marbled and containing about the right pro- 
portion of lean and 



fat beef. Their refinement of form and feature makes them 
invariably dress a high percentage of beef. No other cattle 
of equal quality and condition will sell better in the open 
market than the Angus, a fact which emphasizes their good 
killing qualities together with the desirable quality of their 
flesh. 

Those selecting bulls of the Angus breed for use on 
grade or pure-bred herds should look well to secure a 
smoothly laid shoulder, not too open on top, and a straight, 
well-muscled hind leg. 

Galloways — No breed of beef cattle in recent years 
has made the improvement that has been made by the Gal- 
loways. They were formerly angular, rough, coarse, and 
noticeably lacking in width. They were proverbially flat- 
ribbed and late maturing. During recent years several pro- 
gressive breeders have wrought such an improvement in the 
breed that their animals are hardly looked upon as tj'pical 
Galloways. These improved herds, however, show the pos- 
sibilities resting in the Galloway breed. Their beef has 
always been considered of the highest quality on the English 
market. They usually dress out a high percentage of beef 
carrying good grain. Their long, thick, woolly coats have 
made their hides valuable for the manufacture of coats. 




Fig. 116. Galloway bull (Druid of Castle- 
milk 17054 [6159], champion of Scotland, 
1899, and of America, 1901; bred by Sir 
Robert Jarden, owned by O. H. Swigart, 
Champaign, 111.) and heifer (Norma 3d 
of Avondale, senior champion, Interna- 
tional Live Stock Exposition, Chicago, 
1901 ; same owner). 



212 



LEADING BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK 



robes, and mittens. The Galloways and Shorthorns make a very desirable cross for the produc- 
tion of steers for the feed lot and subsequently for the block. 

Polled Durhams — It should be clearly understood that Polled Shorthorns and Polled 
Durhams are not necessarily the same breed. The Polled Shorthorn is eligible for I'egistry in the 
American Shorthorn Herd Book and in the American Polled Durham Record. Polled Durhams 
are not eligible for registry in the American Shorthorn Herd Book. When an animal is spoken of 
as a " double standard Polled Durham " it is to be understood that such an animal is eligible for 
record in the American Shorthorn Herd Book and in the Polled Durham Herd Book as well. The 
Polled Durhams have pi'actically the same characteristics as those possessed by the modern Short- 
horns. The standing of the breed has been somewhat endangered by a tendency among breeders 
to reserve all of the polled animals dropped in their herds rather than to discard a few inferior 
ones. The temptation to sell such unworthy polled cattle at a good price has been too strong to 
resist. 

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 

The leading breeds of dairy cattle are the Jerseys, Guernseys, Ayr shires, Hol- 
stein-Friesums, and Dutch Belted. 

Jerseys — The Jersey may be light or dark fawn in color and may be all fawn or fawn and 
white. When they are all fawn their color is spoken of as solid ; when spotted with white, as 
broken colored Jerseys. The solid fawn color is preferred. A black tongue and a black switch 
are also desirable markings. Formerly there was such a strong prejudice in favor of solid colored 
Jerseys with the desirable markings that many very good individual broken colored Jerseys were 
discavded much to the detriment of the breed. Breeders of Jersej'^s as well as breeders of all 

classes of live stock are not permitting color to stand as the 
chief basis for selection. While in many instances its im- 
portance is and should be recognized, it does not take pre- 
cedence of more important factors. The following are the 
most important characteristics of the Jersey breed: 

1. A tendency to convert a larje part of the food con- 
sumed into milk and not flesh and fat. 

2. Their milk contains the highest percentage of butter 
fat of any of the dairy breeds. In other words, they give the 
richest milk. They are noted for quality rather than quantity 
of milk. 

3. The fat globules in the milk are large, thus facilitat- 
ing creaming by the shallow or deep setting gravity methods. 
Largely owing to this fact the cream gathers more rapidly in 
churning than the cream taken from the milk of other breeds 
of cows. 

4. Their early maturity makes it possible to breed them 

at an early age, hence, avoiding the necessity of long periods 
Fig. 117. Jersey bull (Pedro 3187) and , ... ?m ,, • • . r , 

cow (Brown Bessie 74997J. of waiting while they are coming into usefulness. 




DAIRY CATTLE: tJUERNSEYS, AYKSHIRES 



213 




Fig. 118. Guernsey bull (Sheet Anchor 
3934) and cow (Vrangue'.s Favorite 
TV. 1923, owned by Alfred Le Pa- 
tourel, Island of Guernsey). 



Guernseys — Like Jerseys, Guernseys are sometimes 
spoken of as one of the Channel Island breeds because they 
originated on the Island of Guernsey in the English Channel. 
While these two breeds have been bred and developed inde- 
pendently they doubtless had a common origin, and as they 
have been developed for similar uses they resemble each 
other in their general appearance and in their characteristics 
as well. 

Guernseys are larger, somewhat coarser in bone, and cany 
more flesh than Jerseys. They are noted for the rich color of 
their milk and cream and the natural high color of the butter 
made from Guernsey cream. It is generally believed that 
they produce slightly more milk than the Jerseys; whether 
or not their milk possesses a higher percentage of butter fat 
than Jersey milk is a disputed question. 

The color of the Guernsey is characteristic ; they are 
usually of a light yellowish, reddish, or orange fawn with 
large and small patches of white unevenly distributed over 
the body and legs. The Guernseys are said to possess quiet 
dispositions. At any rate, they are cared for in their native 
home largely by women. Mature cows of this breed should weigh from 950 to 1,200 pounds, 
bulls from 1,200 to 1,600 pounds. Guernseys are persistent milkers; like the Jerseys, the fat 
globules in the milk are large. They are not usually bred so 
young as the Jerseys. 

Ayrsliires — Ayrshires originated in the country or 
shire of Ayr, Scotland. Their flesh-carrying and flesh-taking 
tendencies are undoubtedly the result of the free use of Short- 
horn blood in the development of the breed. As a dairy 
breed they are especially valuable to furnish milk well suited 
for cheese-making. They give a large quantity of milk not 
containing a high percentage of butter fat but a high per- 
centage of casein. In general type, they are short-legged _^pg 
and their thin necks, clean-cut heads, roomy paunches, and 
deep hind quarters give them a characteristic wedge-shaped 
appearance from the side. Mature bulls should weigh from 
1,300 to 1,700 pounds. The udders of the Ayrshires are 
level, spreading, broad and flat rather than large and pen- 
dant. They are a very hardy race of cattle with a ten- 
dency to be somewhat nervous. In color, they are red 
and white, either color predominating or in most cases an 
indefinite spotting of white over the red is characteristic. 
The fat globules in the milk are quite uneven in size 
although mostly small. 




Fig. 119. Ayrshire bull (John V\^ebb 5180) 
and cow (Red Ro.se 5566). 



15 



214 



LEADIXG BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK 




Holstciii-Friesians — This breed originated in 
North Holland and Frieslaud, a low, level, rich country. 
It is not surprising, therefore, that this breed, surrounded 
by such environment for centuries, is the largest and 
heaviest breed of dairy cattle in existence. Mature cows 
should weigh from 1,150 to 1,600 pounds, bulls from 1,900 
to 2,400 pounds. In color they are black and white, black 
predominating in some and white in others ; disposition, 
quiet; -constitution, strong; udders, usually large, being 
long and extending well up behind. Teats inclined to 
be large, milk veins prominent. No other breed equals 
them in quantity of milk. Their milk is, however, defi- 
cient in fat and solids. Where kept on the farm their 
abundant milk is very useful for young growing calves 
and pigs. The fat globules in Holstein milk are small. 

Holsteins are 



Fig. 120. Holstein-Friesian bull (De Brave 
Hendrik 230) and cow (Rosa Bonheur 5th 
1 12~", owned by Michigan State Agricul- 
tural College). 



sometimes recom- 
mended for beef 
production. In 
this regard the au- 
thor believes they 
are apt to possess thin flesh of a coarse nature and to be too 
coarse in bone. Their beef does not possess the juiciness of 
the beef cut from the beef breeds. They are distinctly a 

dairy breed and 
should be looked 
upon as such. 





Fig. 121. Dutch Belted bull (Duke of Ralph 
255) and cow (Lady Aldine 124). 



Fig. 122. Red Polled bull (Boss 3398) and 
cow (Popsy 3d 9689). 



Dutch Belted 

— The original name 
of these cattle was 
' ' Lakenfield cattle, " 
a name now some- 
times used in their 
native country, Hol- 
land. As their name 

indicates they are belted, a broad band of white encircling 
the body, the main color being black. The cows weigh 
from 1,000 to 1,300 pounds, and the bulls from 1,300 to 
1,800 pounds. They give a large amount of milk containing 
a small pei'centage of butter fat. In this respect they are 
similar to Holsteins. Their heads are long; horns, line ; 
necks, thin ; udders, square and well placed. 



DUAL PURPOSE CATTLE, HORSES 



215 



DUAL PURPOSE 

The leading dual purpose cattle are the Red 

Polled, Brown Sivi'ss, and Devons. 

Red Polled — The Red Polled breed originated in 

Norfolk and Suffolk counties in the east of England. 

While thej^ are looked upon as a general or dual purpose 

lireed, their dairy qualities are rather better than their 

(■ualities as beef producers. As the name indicates they 

are polled; in weight they are somewhat heavier than the 

Devon and longer in leg and body. They are usually of a 

deep dark red color. 

Brown Swiss — In color these cattle "are gray or 

brown with dark extremities except muzzle which is 

"mealy." The bulls are usually darker colored than the 

cows. Some individuals of the Brown Swiss breed might 

be mistaken for Jerseys, but they are generally much 

heavier and coarser. Mature cows weigh from 1,200 to 

1,400 pounds and bulls from 1,600 to 2,100 pounds. Udder 

and teats large; bones, heavy; hide, thick; disposition, 

dull. Brown Swiss calves are large and vigorous at 
birth and with proper care grow quite rapidly, some- 
times weighing 600 pounds at six months of age. 

Devons — This dual purpose breed is very popular 
in Southwestern England. They were formerly more 
common in the United States than at the present time. 
Their active temperament made them desirable as work 
cattle. Their milk is rich and the quantity average. 
They are not very persistent milkers. Their beef is of 
excellent quality, but their lack of size and growth has 
prevented their besoming universally popular as a beef 
breed in the United States. 




Fig. 12.3. Brown Swiss l)ull (Gilbo 720) 
and cow (Brienzi 168). 




Fig 1J4 pe\on hull (Gm.'ial Uoidon2(l WJi, 
owned' by W. F Moise, Veiona, Wis 
(Fiom the Byeedet^s Gazette.) 



BREEDS OF HORSES 

In general, horses may be classilied as draft, coach, carriage, and saddle horses. 

The draft breeds are Percheron, Clydesdale, English Shire, Belgian, Suffolk Punch. 

The coach breeds are French Coach, German Coach, and Cleveland Bay. 

The carriage breeds are Ainerican Tr^otter and Hackney. 

The saddle breeds are English and American Thoroughbred and American Saddler. 

In a technical sense the above classification may not be correct, but it is suffi- 
ciently accurate^ to aid materially in a clear understanding of the uses to which the 
various breeds are put. 



216 



LEADING BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK 




Fig. 125. Typical Percheron stallion. 
(Breeder's Gazette.) 



DRAFT BREEDS 

Percheron — The Percheron is the best known 
of all the draft breeds in the United States. The breed 
originated in France. When mature, stallions weigli 
from 1,800 to 2,000 pounds; mares from 1,600 to 1,800 
pounds; color, black, brown, bay, or gray; grays and 
blacks are most common. Percherons have an attrac- 
tive style and finish, being nicely turned, good actors, 
and spirited. They have a quiet disposition. Per- 
cherons cross well with the common draft stock of the 
country and stallions are more freely used for the pro- 
duction of heavy draft horses than those of any other 
breed. They are apt to be a trifle light in bone, hence, by 
mating a grade shire mare of naturally heavy strong bone 
with a Percheron stallion an ideal market draft horse 
is produced. 



English Shire — The Shire is the heaviest breed 
of draft horses in existence, mature horses weighing from 
1,800 to 2,100 pounds. They range in height from 15^ 
to 111 hands. Legs and body short and massive. A 
mass of fine, silky hair from knee and hock to fetlocks 
is often spoken of as the "feather." The Shire is chiefly 
noted for its Inilk, heavy bone, and good feet. In tem- 
perament they are somewhat dull and sluggish, and are 
adapted for slow trucking where strength is the most 
important consideration. Many Shires are marked with 
a strip of white in the face and with two or more white 
stockings. Prevailing colors, hay, brown, and black. 





Fig. 126. Typical English Shire .stallion. 
(Breeder's Gazette.) 



Fig. 12i. Typical Clydpsdale stallion. 



Clydesdale 

— The Clydes- 
dale is hardly as 
low or massive as the Shire, but rather more active. In 
fact, the long stride of the Clydesdale at the walk is espe- 
cially characteristic. A trifle more slope in pastern and 
shoulder makes greater action possible. Otherwise than 
the points noted above, the Clydesdale is very similar to 
the Shire. They are similarly marked, had a common 
origin, and formerly were more or less freely crossed. It 
is probably true that the Clydesdale is less beefy in the leg 
than the Shire and more stylish. 

Belgian — In its characteristics and origin, the Bel- 
gian is quite similar to the Percheron. As a rule, however, 



HORSES: COACH BREEDS 



217 



they are a little heavier in bone and often shorter legged. They are good actors for draft horses 
and noted for their good feet. While they have not been imported to the United* States in large 
numbers, the few that have been imported have given a good account of themselves and there 
is no reason why they should not increase in popularity. 

Suflfolk Punch — Prevailing colors, sorrel and chestnut. Stallions weigh from 1,600 to 
2,000 pounds. Their general rotund appearance has led many to speak of them as too beefy. 
They have great courage and strength in draft work. They are without the feather or hair on 
the legs possessed by the Shire and Clydesdale ; legh short and bodies heavy. While they are 
quite popular among the farmers in the south of England, they have never become so in the 
United States. Considering their bulk and the shortness of their legs they are good actors 



COACH BREEDS 

French Coach — The French Coach horse has been developed in France under conditions 
well calculated to produce a horse of perfect conformation, good action, and endurance. The 
lighter class of native French mares were crossed with 
Arabian and English Thoroughbred stallions, so we can 
see that the French Coach has a considerable amount of 
Arabian blood. This undoubtedly accounts for the pleas- 
ing conformation of this breed of horses. The high quality 
of these horses is undoubtedly largely due to the interest 
taken by the French Government in their breeding. The 
Government seems to have taken more pride in the devel- 
opment of this coach horse than any other class of French 
horses. A large number of stallions of this breed are 
annually let to farmers and breeders throughout France 
at a nominal fee. In addition to this the Government has 
a system for the inspection of all stallions used in the 
country. 

All the stallions in France, outside of the Government 
stables, belong to one of three classes : 1st. Appi'oved stal- 
lions — Approved stallions are such as the Government inspectors consider excellent individuals 
and of equally good breeding. The owners of such stallions receive a bonus from the Government 
of from $75 to $150 for standing them in France. 2d. AutJwrized staUiotis — These are stallions 
which Government inspectors believe to be good enough to be used on the common stock of the 
country, but which are not considered good enough to offer a bonus to their owners for standing 
them. 3d. Unautharized stallions — There are a large number of stallions in France which are 
not good enough individually nor well enough bred to be used for breeding purposes so they are 
used for common work horses on the street and on the farms. 

The desirable action of the French Coach may be partially due to the method of developing, 
training, and speeding. This class of horses is sometimes spoken of as French Trotters. The races 
in France are seldom less than two or three miles in extent and usually over a sod track, so it is a 
trial of endurance as well as of speed. A sod track makes higher action necessary, and while it is 




Fig. 138. Typical French Coach stallion. 



218 



LEADING BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK 



not conducive to high speed it influences knee and 
hock action. A mature French Coach horse weighs 
from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds. The predominating col- 
ors are bays, browns, and sorrels. 

Geriiian Coach — The German Coach and 
German Coacher is similar to the French Coach horse, 
but is heavier in body and limb. Their origin was 
very similar to that of the French Coach, except that 
native German mares were used as a foundation. 
They weigh from 1,050 to 1,350 pounds ; are bays, 
browns, and chestnuts. These horses are heavy 
enough for most farm work. 

Cleveland Bay — The Cleveland Bay is the 
English Coach horse. They are the result of crossing 
large, native bay mares with thoroughbred stallions. 
Cleveland bays are the most uniform in color of any 
of the coach or carriage breeds, being usually a bright bay with black points ; larger than the 
French Coach and fully as heavy as the German or Oldenberg Coach horses ; weigh from 1,000 to 
1,400 pounds. They are not so good actors nor have they produced so good results where they 
have been used on the common stock of the United States as has the French coach. In dispo- 
sition they are quiet and gentle. The breed as a whole lacks greatlj' in uniformity. 




Fig. 129. Typical Cleveland Bay stallion, 
(breeder's Gazette.) 



CARRIAGE BREEDS 

American Trotter — The American Trotter has been developed for the race course. 
There is a great lack of uniformity among standard bred horses. As to general appearance and 
conformation they have been developed with one object in view, that of securing great speed. 
The American Trotter undoubtedly stands at the head of the trotters of all nations for high speed 
at the trot. 

There are quite a number of standard bred horses that 
possess size, conformation, and action most desired in 
market, carriage, or coach horses, hence, many American 
Trotters are used as carriage and coach horses. More 
attention is being paid by breeders of American Trotters 
to the development of size, action, and conformation than 
formerly. The principal use to which American Trotters 
are put is the race course. This class of horses has been 
developed largely by breeding the lighter graded common 
mares of the United States with English thoroughbred 
stallions. 

Hackney — The Hackney is another carriage or coach 
horse that is not nearly so tall nor so heavy as the Cleve- 
land Bay. They weigh from 950 to 1,200 pounds. For a ^^Bre'eder-I^ritefte^^ ^^^ 




HORSES, SHEEP 



219 



coach breed thej' are shoit legged and veiy compact and exceptionally well muscled. They are 
noted for their knee and hock action which in some instances is excessive. In some parts of 
England they are spoken of as the Norfolk Trotter. In the United States they are not considered 
fast, and they are<used for the production of fancj' drivers rather than for the production of speed. 

SADDLE BREEDS 

English Thoroughbred — The English Thoroughbred is the running horse of Great 
Britain. They are very slim of build and devoid of flesh. They had their origin largely in the 
Arabian horse. Bays, chestnuts, and browns predominate. In disposition they are fearless and 
ambitious. These horses have great endurance. They are used principally for racing purposes 
and for mating with heavier horses possessing less spirit. The characteristics of the English and 
American Thoroughbred are so nearly alike that it is unnecessary to describe the latter. 

Anierieaii Saddler — The American Saddler, like the American Trotter, had its origin 
very similar to that of the American Thoroughbred, the blood of the English Thoroughbred being 
the most conspicuous factor. The most desirable saddlers are those with the most graceful car- 
riage and springy saddle gait. The American Saddler is bred quite largely in Missouri and Ken- 
tucUy, and he is rapidly becoming an important factor in the horse-breeding interests of the United 
States. Horses largely of thoroughbred and trotting or pacing blood, which have shown especial 
adaptability for saddle purposes, have been selected until a breed has been developed which for 
intelligence, easy, and clean-going action is not surpassed. They are a breed of remarkable beauty 
and graceful carriage. In size they rank with the English Thoroughbred. 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 

The breeds of sheep best known in the United 
States belong to one of the following classes: First, 
fine vvooled ; second, medium wooled ; and third, 
coarse or long wooled class. The various races of 
Merinos are practically the only fine wooled breeds. 
The Southdown, ShropsJih-e, Hampshire, Oxford, 
Dorset Horned, and Cheviot are the principal 
medium wooled breeds. The Leicester, Cotswotd 
and Lincoln belong to the coarse or long wooled 
class. 

FINE WOOLED 

Merino — There are two great subdivisions of Merinos 
First, those which are bred primarily for wool, like the 
Amencun, SpnnLsh, and Saxon Merinos; and second, those 
which are bred for both wool and mutton. This latter sub- 




FiG. 131. Typical Merino and Cotswold. 



220 



LEADING BEEEDS OF LIVE STOCK 




Fig. 132. Typical Delaine Merino. 



division includes the various breeds of Delaine Merino sheep 
and the Rmnbovillet (Fig. 1). 

Of the Merinos bred primarily for wool, the American 
Merino '\s by far the most important breed. They shear a fleece 
of great fineness and weight. The body is more or less covered 
with wrinkles which lengthen into folds of considerable promi- 
nence on the shoulder and neck. The wool is rather short of 
staple and very oily. It is used for the manufacture of the 
finest woolen fabrics. Owing to the inability of the American 
Merino to produce a good carcass of mutton at an early age, 
and to the fact that fine wool has sold at a discount, the breed 
■ has been in disfavor in the United States for a few years past. 

A united effort has been made among the breeders of 
Merino sheep to develop breeds of wool-mutton Merinos. Con- 
siderable progress has been made along this line in the United States, France, and Germany. 
There are a number of breeds belonging to this subclass, among which are the Standard Delaine, 
the Black Top, the Dickinson Delaine, and the Rambouillet. The first three originated in the 
United States and the Rambouillet in France. 

The American breeds of Delaine Merinos are quite similar in their characteristics. They 
possess bodies carrying more flesh than the American or Spanish varieties so that they are consid- 
ered fairly satisfactory for mutton production. It can hardly be said, however, that they rank 
with the English mutton breeds in this respect. They are 
more early maturing than the American Merinos and produce 
^a fleece of good length of staple. Their wool commands a 
ready sale at a good price in the wool markets of the United 
States. 

The Rambouillet is considerably larger than the wool- 
mutton American Delaines. They are more rangy and coarser 
in conformation throughout. While they are not as good 
shearers or as close to the ground as our American Delaines, 
they are more vigorous and growthy, being especially adapted 
for use on the western range. 



MEDIUM WOOLED 

Southdown — The Southdown conforms more nearly 
to the ideal mutton type than does any other breed of sheep. 
They are low set, broad, deep, and thick-fleshed. They are 
noted especially for their development of the leg of mutton, 
their well fleshed backs, and the quality of their mutton. 
Their fleeces are somewhat lighter than thoge of the other 
middle-wooled breeds, but it is fine in qualitj'. Mature rams 
should range in weight from 175 to 225 pounds and ewes 
from 135 to 165 pounds. The Southdown ram is highly Fig. 1.33. Typical Lincoln and Southdown 




SHEEP: MEDIUM WOOLED 



221 




Fig. 134. Typical Hampsliiie and bhi op- 
shire. (Hampshire, from a photo- 
graph of Columbian Exposition 
sweepstakes winner, furnished by 
The American Sheep Breeder.) 



prized as a sire for early lambs. The faces and legs of the 
Southdowns are usually gray or cinnamou brown in color. 
Like all other Down breeds they are hornless. The South- 
down has been extensively used in the improvement and 
refinement of some of the other middle-wooled breeds. 

Shropshire — The Shropshire is the most numerous 
and the most universally popular of the English mutton 
breeds. They are of medium size, mature rams ranging in 
weight from 175 to 250 pounds with ewes about 50 pounds 
lighter. They carry a fleece of medium fineness and length. 
The average weight of the .Shropshire fleece ranges from 8 to 
12 pounds. While Shropshire rams have been known to shear 
18 pounds, fleeces of such weight are exceptional. Breeders 
of Shropshires have made an effort to preserve the South- 
down ideal mutton type in a larger, more growthy sheep. In 
many respects they have been eminently successful. The 
Shropshire has more wool on the face and legs than the 
Southdown, while the color of the face and legs is a blackish 
or grayish brown. In its wide distribution and universal pop- 
ularity, the Shropshire bears the same relation to sheep hus- 
bandry that the Short- 



horn does to the cattle- 
raising industry. 
Hampshire — The Hampshire may be distinguished 
from the Shropshire by its greater scale and weight, its 
heavier bone, coarser head and ear. The face, legs, and ears 
are considerably blacker, and the head is not so well covered 
with wool. The fleece is similar to that of the Shropshire, 
but usually a little shorter in the staple, although quite often 
more dense. Mature rams should weigh from 225 to 300 
pounds and ewes from 160 to 250 pounds. Like the Shrop- 
shire, the Hampshire ram crossed upon natjve or grade Merino 
ewes produces an excellent lamb for fattening purposes, espe- 
cially where the lamb is to be marketed under one year of age. 
This breed is largely used in its native home for crossing 
with the larger, less compact, long-wooled breeds. 

Oxford — The Oxford is the largest of the middle- 
wooled breeds. In fact, their wool is long enough to fre- 
quently grade as combing wool. Mature rams should weigh 
from 275 to 400 pounds and ewes from 175 to 260 pounds. 
The Oxford is undoubtedly the result of crossing the Cots- 
wold with the Hampshire. They are a very hardy race and 
well adapted to low, luxuriant pastures and liberal feeding. 




Fig. 135 Typical Cheviot and Oxford 



'^.^'^ 



LEADING BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK 



Dorset Horned — The Dorset Horned breed is the most prolific breed of slieep in the 
United States. They are the only medium-wooled breed that have horns, both the ewes and the 
rams possessing them. Their faces and legs are white. The legs show but little wool below the 
knees or hocks. Mature rams weigh from 175 to 200 pounds, and ewes from 35 to 50 pounds 
lighter. Dorset Horned sheep have a tendency to be light in the fore quarter and deficient in the 
girth. They produce a light fieece of wool possessing but little 
natural oil. As has been said, however, they are the most prolific 
of breeds and withal heavy milkers, hardy, and early maturing. 
They have given excellent satisfaction when used to produce early 
lambs. 

Cheviot — The Cheviot is a native of the Cheviot Hills. They 
are scattered over England and Scotland wherever conditions for 
their proper development are favorable. They are known as a "hill " 
breed in Great Britain and are well adapted to what is known as 
the "green hills " of England and Scotland. They are a good mutton 
sheep, being low, compact, and broad. Mature rams should weigh 
not less than 175 pounds and ewes not less than 135 pounds when 
bred in the United States. The range of weights in imported stock 
is somewhat less than this. Their wool contains but very little oil. 
They are very hardy and moderately early maturing. Their grazing 
qualities ai'e excellent, but not on coarse grass, as they prefer short, fine herbage. They like the 
freedom of the hillside and do not take kindly to confinement. They are regular, but not what 
might be called prolific breeders. They shear from 6 to 9 pounds of wool. 




Fig. 1.36. Typical Dorsetshire 
ram. 



COARSE OR LONG WOOLED 



LiCicester — The Leicester bears the same relation to other long-wooled breeds that the 
Southdown does to the Down breeds ; that is, they have been used to improve and to refine the 
somewhat coarser breeds of their class. They were much improved by Robert Bakewell about 
1780, at which time they were the most popular of the mutton sheep in England. At the present 
time they are looked upon more as a valuable breed for crossing purposes than where bred pure. 
They are, perhaps, more compact than the other long-wooled breeds, and rather more early matur- 
ing. Their fleece, however, is not as heavy as either the Cotswold or Lincoln. In size they are 
similar to the Hampshire. 

Cotswold — The Cotswold (Fig. 131) is a very old race of sheep. Their characteristics are 
said to have been fixed as early as the thirteenth century. Some improvement was wrought 
after Bakewell's time by the use of the Leicester cross. Mature rams weigh from 250 to 300 pounds. 
Their heads are long, rather large, and decorated with a long forelock of curly wool. The ewes of 
this breed are said to be very good mothers. The lambs are somewhat delicate at birth. Cots- 
wolds are noted for the production of combing wool. Their faces and legs are white with often a 
light grayish tinge. Their fleeces range from eight inches to a foot in length and weigh from 
12 to 18 pounds. 



COARSE WOOLED SHEEP, SWL\E 



223 



Lincoln — LincOlns (Fig. 134) are the largest framed, heaviest, and longest wooled breed of 
sheep with which we have to deal. They are a hardy race and adapted to low land where pasture 
and succulent food are abundant. It is believed that the Lincoln, like other long-wooled breeds, 
contain slightly more fat throughout their carcasses than the Down breeds. Owing to this fact 
they are not so well liked by many American markets. 



BREEDS OF SWINE 

All breeds of swine belong either to the fat or the bacon class. This appears to 
be a legitimate and reasonable basis for classification. 

The leading breeds of fat liogs are Poland China, Berkshire, Chester White, 
DuroC' Jersey, Cheshire, and Victoria. 

The leading breeds developed especially for the production of bacon are the 
Ta))iworth and Large Yorkshire. 

FAT HOGS 

Poland China — The Poland China breed originated in the United States in Butler and 
Warren counties, Ohio. They are now, after being bred pure for over half a century, the most 
popular breed in the corn belt of America. Some few have been exported to Canada, but they are 
not popular there. Poland Chinas are sometimes classed as the heaviest of the medium breeds. 
They were formerly larger and coarser than at the present time. For several years breeders of 
Poland Chinas have selected them for early maturity and quick fattening qualities. Besides their 
early maturing qualities the Poland China is unusually good in the hams. They lack somewhat 
in prolificacy and strength of bone. For crossing with the coarser, less refined, common stock of 
the country, they are unsurpassed. Mature boars in good tlesh should weigh not less than .500 
pounds ; sows, same age and condition, not less than 4.50 pounds. 

Berkshire — This breed ( Fig. 138 ) derives its name 
from the locality in which it originated, viz., Berkshire, Eng- 
land. They are the most popular breed of swine in Southern 
England and they have been more largely imported to the 
United States than any other foreign breed. They are hardly 
as large as the Poland Chinas, but they mature at an early 
age, which is more important. Boars in good flesh, two years 
old or over, should weigh not less than 450 pounds ; sows, 
same age and condition, 400 pounds. Berkshires are good 
grazers, being active and possessed of good quality of bone. 
They dress a high percentage of meat and their flesh makes 
excellent pork or bacon. Advocates of this breed insist that 
the fat and lean are more evenly distributed throughout the 
carcass than in the Poiand China. There is less uniformity 

in this breed than in Poland Chinas, but they are rather more , , , , ^ , 

Fig. 137. Tj pical Pulaud China and 
prolific. Tamworth sows. 




224 



LEADING BEEEDS OF LIVE STOCK 




Chester White — Like the Poland China the Chester White is purely an American breed. 
They originated in Chester County, Pennsylvania. They are an older breed than the Poland 
China, and considerably larger and coarser. They are more numerous in Pennsylvania and Ohio 
than in other States, although they are to be found in nearly every State in the Union. Mature 

boars should vpeigh not less than 500 pounds and sows not 
less than 450 pounds. They are not quite so early maturing 
as the Poland Chinas. Their larger size seems to require a 
longer time for maturity. Chester Whites are good grazers. 
They are considered valuable for crossing upon finer boned 
.uid more compact breeds. In their leading characteristics they 
are similar to the Berkshire and Poland China, making them 
desirable for those preferring a white hog. 

Duroc- Jersey — The Du roc -Jersey is the most recent 
of our American breeds of swine. Perhaps no breed of swine 
has improved so much in the last ten years as has the Duroc- 
Jersey. As a result they are rapidly growing in favor in the 
( orn belt, and give promise of permanent popularity. Owing 
to the fact that the breed is not an old one, the Duroc-Jersey 
type is not as uniform or as well fixed as in some of the older 
breeds. They vary much in color, size, and early maturing 
qualities, consequently it can hardly be said that they are as early maturing as the Poland China, 
but they possess an advantage in being more prolific. Their grazing qualities are excellent and 
they are hardy. They have a good side, but need improvement in their hams. 

Cheshire — The Cheshire undoubtedly had their origin in the native white hogs of Jefferson 
County, New York, which were crossed with large im]iroved 
Yorkshires and Suflolks. Thej^ are chiefly bred in the Eastern 
States, rarely being seen in the corn belt or farther west. 
They are considerably smaller than the Poland China, early 
maturing, and fair grazers. Their flesh is firm and fine- 
grained. In disposition they are quiet. 

Victoria — Victorias may belong either to the strain 
originated by Colonel Curtis of New York or Mr. Davis of 
Indiana. The characteristics of these two varieties are very 
similar. In size they rank with the Berkshire, and in other 
characteristics they resemble the Chester White, although they 
undoubtedly are finer and mof e early maturing. 



Fig. 138. Typical Berkshire and Chester 
White boars. 




Fig. 139. Typical Yorkshire sow and 
Duroc-Jersey boar. 



BACON HOGS 

Larj^e Yorlisliire — Yorkshires originated in York 
shire, England. No other breed is as popular for the produc- 
tion of bacon either in Great Britain or America. They are especially highly prized in Canadii. 
Their bodies are very long and while they do not possess the width of the Chester White, th( y 
are usually longer, deeper, and heavier. They have scarcely the depth of the Tamworth. The x 



ADVANTAGES OF STOCK RAISING 225 

are strong boned, but rather late maturing. They are good grazers and the quality of the meat 
is excellent. 

Taiuworth — The Tamworth (Fig. 137) is another English breed which originated in Staf- 
fordshire, England. They are remarkable for their depth of body, thus furnishing an excellent 
foundation for the production of good bacon. They are similar in size to the Large Yorkshires. 
They can not be made a satisfactory fat hog without considerable age, but are especially adapted 
for the production of bacon. As grazers they are probably unexcelled. Their carcasses are said 
to contain a higher percentage of lean to fat than any other breed of swine. Tamworths are very 
prolific. 

II. THE BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

ADVANTAGES OF STOCK RAISING' 

The majority of farmers believe that tliere are distinct advantages in the keep- 
ing of live stock on the farm ; few, however, appreciate that for permanent success 
the keeping of stock is imperative. To emphasize this thought it is advisable to 
enumerate the advantages of the keeping of live stock on the farm, before attempt- 
ing to discuss the general principles upon which the successful breeding of domestic 
animals depends. 

Soil Improvement — The most important reason why live stock should 
be kept on the farm is that the fertility of the land may thereby be maintained or 
increased. A system of grain farming is a constant drain on the fertility of the 
land, unless an expensive system of green manuring or fertilizing is frequently 
resorted to. It should be borne in mind also, that farmyard manure has the double 
function of improving the physical as well as the chemical properties of most soils. 
Without the use of farmyard manure commercial fertilizers lose a large part of 
their effectiveness. No other system of maintaining or increasing the fertility of 
tlie soil has been found so generally effective or so cheap as has the use of farm- 
yard manure. 

The source of farmyard manure is live stock, and under proper, intelligent 
nuinagement it will return a profit to the farmer beyond the fertilizing value of the 
manure produced. It would seem that the possibility of marketing crops grown on 
the farm in the form of cash live-stock products at a higher price per bushel than 
that which can be secured for the grain, and having the manure left for keeping 
up and rendering more available the plant food in the soil, is an argument which 
ought to appeal to every practical man. Not only this, but, notwithstanding the 

1 See also page 31. 



226 BKEEDING OF FAEM ANIMALS 

fact that a system of stock farming involves more labor than one of grain growing, 
a modest profit may be secured upon all such labor. 

Profit in Rotation — The maintenance of soil fertility is undoubtedly one 
of the greatest problems connected with successful agriculture. In considering it, 
two important factors should receive attention : First, the amount of plant food 
in the soil, and second, whether or not such plant food is available. AVhile tillage 
does not add to the fertility of the soil, it renders the plant food in the soil more 
available. A proper rotation of crops may perform the same function, while farm- 
yard manure has, as has been said, the double function of actually adding plant 
food to the soil and rendering the supply already in the soil more available for use 
of the plant. Animal production on the farm renders the probability of profit 
from a rotation of crops greater. Certain crops that can not be sold as grown upon 
the land can readily be converted into cash products in the form of meat or dairy 
products. 

Since it is desirable to grow a variety of crops on the land, we would mention 
as the second advantage of keeping live stock on the farm, the possibility of grow- 
ing a greater variety of crops. 

Utilization of Wastes — Third, live stock consume the residues of the 
farm, such as straw, corn stover, and the like. 

Distribution of Labor and Income — Fourth, the labor necessary 
to carry on the farm is much more evenly distributed throughout the year where 
stock raising is a part of the general plan. It is a well-known fact that in a system 
of grain growing it is necessary to keep a large number of horses and men during 
certain seasons, while at others these teams are idle and but little work, if any, can 
be furnished to the men. It is an advantage to keep the men and to have profit- 
able employment for the teams throughout the year. No successful business man 
or manufacturer would think of running his plant but six or eight months in the 
year. Fifth, animal production distributes the farmer's income throughout the year. 

Granting, then, that the keeping of live stock is advisable, we are ready to 
consider the principles underlying the breeding of farm animals. It is not our 
purpose in this chapter to discuss the question of how to select a good cow, either 
for dairy or for beef; a good sheep, for wool or for mutton; a good pig, for hams 
or for bacon ; nor yet a good horse, for draft or for carriage purposes, but rather 
to consider some of the fundamental principles which apply alike to the breeding 
of all animals. The subjects enumerated will be discussed elsewhere.^ 

1 See page 249, et seq. 



RULES FOR SELECTION 227 

There are several different systems of stock farming. In the interest of clear- 
ness it is well to distinguish between ; First, the man who is making the business 
of breeding stock for breeding purposes only, in which instance it would be a 
question largely of breeding pure-bred animals ; second, the man who is breeding 
market animals — either horses, cattle, sheep, or swine — the man wlio looks upon 
pure-bred animals as a means to an end, but who is not engaged in their breediug 
and sale; and, third, the man who is a feeder and not a breeder of live stock. 
The business of such a man is to fit animals bred by others for the market. Mani- 
festly, what follows relative to the principles of stock feeding would be of little 
interest or importance to the man who simply feeds stock. An effort is made to 
make what is said applicable to the two other classes of stock farmers. 

In breeding live stock the first necessary operation is the selection of breeding 
stock. 

OENEKAL. RULES FOR SELECTION 

1. Fuiidanieiitals in -selection — In selecting animals, two things are 
to be considered : The individual excellence of the animal, and its ancestry or 
breeding. 

2. Select toward an ideal type — Select pure-bred animals, or high 
grades of a breed conforming as nearly as possible to that ideal type. Do not 
try to remodel a breed, nor, in general, attempt to establish new breeds. 

Do not confuse the terms breed and type. A tyfe refers to a class of animals which in their 
leading characteristics, adaptability, and usefulness are very similar. It will be seen from this 
that it is possible for a type to include individual animals of various breeds. As, for example, 
Shorthorns, Herefords, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloways, and Polled Durhams all conform, or should 
conform, to the beef type ; and again, Jerseys, Guernseys, Holstein-Friesians, and Ayrshires con- 
form to the dairy type. The term breed refers to a group of animals closely related in general 
blood lines which may or may not bear a close resemblance to one another in size, form, and color, 
and which have the ability to reproduce other animals that will inherit their various characteris- 
tics, some of which may be nothing more than breed characteristics. 

It is possiljle, but not often the case, that a breed includes more than one type, as is seen in the 
Shorthorn breed. Some Shorthorns are distinctly of the beef type, while others conform more 
nearly to the dairy type. The term breed is never used except in referring to pure-bred animals, 
while it is entirely correct to use the term type in speaking of grade or cross-bred animals. 

3. Personal i>reference is an important factor in the selection both of a 
class and of a breed of stock. 

4. Choose deliberately — It is economy to take plentyoftime to decide 



228 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

the class, type, and breed of animals best suited to your conditions, so that, once a 
choice is made, a, 2jermanent policy may be pursued. 

5. Select for viiiiforiiiity — In the breeding of market stock, a uniform 
load of -steers, hogs, or sheep Avill command their full value in the market, whereas 
a mixed consignment might be sold at a discount. Careful attention to the 
question of uniformity in the selection of the breed of animals to comprise a breed- 
ing herd of pure-bred stock is of still greater importance than in the breeding of 
market animals. The history of successful stock breeders of the past leads us to 
conclude that many a breeder's reputation has been won by persistent adherence to 
a definite type. In other words, the individuality of herds and flocks has made 
many a breeder famous. 

G. Select animals with pronounced constitutional vigor and 
from strains of blood known to possess longevity and sustained fertility. 

7. Select for quality rather than for size. Unusually large animals 
belonging to a particular breed or class of animals are spoken of as possessing 
"plenty of scale," or "great scale." Quality refers both to the feeding quality of 
an animal (as indicated by conformation and good handling quality) and to general 
quality, or a refinement of form and feature — characteristic evidences of good 
breeding. 

8. If breeding: animals for the oi^en market, select animals with 
reference to their being adapted for feed lot, stable, or harness rather than for 
so-called " fancy points " of breed type. 

9. If breeding" registered or pure-bred stock, due importance 
should be attached to these so-called characteristic points of breed type. The suc- 
cessful breeder of pure-bred stock realizes that it is not to his advantage to breed 
animals for whit-h theie is no sale, whether it be on account of their color, pedigree,, 
or general conformation. 

10. Adaptation — Select animals with temperaments adapted to the purpose 
for which they are intended. 

11. Finally, having satisfied yourself as to the individual excellence of the 
" animal, the ancestry or breeding should be taken into account, since this factor 

materially affects the prepotency of the animal, an important subject which will be 
considered elsewhere.^ All animals need proving; the best breeding animals are 
those that produce the best individuals, and not necessarily the ones that show 
best individually. 

1 See page 229. 



LAWS OF ANIMAL REPIIODUCTIOX 229 

HEREDITY, PREPOTENCY, AND REVERSION 

Of all the laws affecting the breeding of live stock, the one most important to 
the majority of stock farmers is the law of heredity, or that "like produces like." 
It is deubtless the oldest recognized law of animal reproduction. Xo other law has 
been so much discussed, and it would seem that nothing could be added to give 
greater force to this important law. Notwithstanding these facts, no author dis- 
cussing the principles of animal breeding can do other than consider this subject 
at length, not alone because its importance demands it, but because of the wide- 
spread iadiffe^'ence to its workings. 

Heredity — So far as Ave can judge from our present knowledge of the work- 
ings of the law of heredity it appears that there is a tendency for each indiA'idual 
characteristic in the parent to be transmitted to and reappear in the offspring. 
When offspring apj^ear which bear only a remote resemblance to their ancestors, 
skeptics are inclined to lose their faith in the unvarying law of heredity. A 
few of the best authorities on animal reproduction are beginning to look for the 
inheritance of individual character from generation to generation rather than 
the inheritance of characteristics in groups — characteristics which go to make 
up the individuality of the animal itself. This leads to the thought that in the 
past our ideas of hereditary transmission have been somewhat at fault, since we 
have been demanding that the characteristics of animals should reappear in the 
offspring in bulk rather than as individual characters. A study of the workings of 
the law of heredity should, therefore, involve chiefly a study of the inheritance 
of individual characteristics from generation to generation. 

Experienced stock breeders expect that certain characteristics — for example, 
such as are normal or natural to the race or breed — will be transmitted with greater 
certainty than others. 

Bi'eediiig' with Definite Aim — It is evident that where two animals possessing 
similar characteristics are mated, the characteristics of the family or breed to which the parents 
belong will be transmitted much more certainly than where animals are mated possessing notice- 
ably different characteristics. If, therefore, we are especially anxious to improve a certain point 
in animal form, it is obvious that we should mate animals which possess that particular character- 
istic to a high degree. In theory this is what is done by all breeders of pure-bred stock. Owing 
to carelessness in the selection of breeding animals and their mating, few breeders succeed in mak- 
ing permanent improvement in their herds. In fact, they are frequently obliged to purchase high- 
class bulls at long prices to maintain the excellence of their foundation stock. 

Prei>oteiicy — When an animal has the ability to transmit its characteristics 
to its offspring with great certainty it is said to be preiiotent. Among the condi- 

16 



230 BEEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

tions that are believed to affect the relative prepotency of an animal are : First, 
the breeding of the animal ; second, its age or maturity ; and third, the prepotency 
of the animal with which it is mated. 

The Breeding of Immature Stock, which is all too common, can not be too 
vigorously discoui-aged. The great popularity of the mutton breeds of sheep and 
their relatively high price, a few years ago, led to the extensive use of ram lambs. 
The author has reason to believe that such practice, except in rare instances, has 
proved unwise. It is best, from a monetary standpoint, not to permit ewes to 
drop their lambs before the ewes are two years old, or beef cattle their calves befoi-e 
the heifers are from two' and a half to three years of age. The animal should be 
practically mature before called upon to reproduce itself. If any other system of 
breediug is followed the chances are that either the parents or offspring become 
dwarfed or unprofitable animals. The best results in breeding are to be expected 
when the animals reach full maturity and are in the prime of life, being neither 
too young nor too old. 

Relative Prepotency of Parents — Since the sire often appears to be more 
prepotent than the dam, many have come to look upon the sire as having a greater 
influence upon the offspring than the dam. The sire has undoubtedly been selected 
with more care, both as to his individuality and, more especially, as to his breediug, 
than the dam. Grantiug that the inherent prepotency of the sire and dam are the 
same, or that the simple question of sex is involved, each parent will have an equal 
influence in adding the characteristics of the offspring, since, so far as our present 
knowledge goes, sex as such has little or no bearing upon the prepotency of an 
animal. The fact that the sire is usually better bred and a better individual fully 
accounts for the impression that prevails. 

Breeding: and Prepotency — It is true that prepotency is influenced to 
a greater extent by the breeding of an animal than by any other factor. When an 
animal of low breeding and inferior merit is mated with a Avell-bred animal of high 
individiial excellence, the offspring will resemble the well-bred parent much more 
than the one of low breeding. This question can not be too carefully considered 
by stock farmers who are breeding market animals. After good foundation breed- 
ing stock has been selected, the question of success hinges upon the ability of such 
animals to reproduce their kind. The fact of the relatively high prepotency of 
well-bred animals has long since become well established. No other fact or law 
connected with animal reproduction is more important, for it places within the 
reach of every stock farmer the possibility of producing animals of high individual 



mFLUENCE OF THE 8IKE 231 

merit which will meet every demand of the open mai'ket at a price that will render 
tiieir production highly profitable. It makes it possible for the stock farmer to 
select females of only ordinary merit and of indifferent breeding at a low price and 
mate them witli well-bred sires possessing to a high degree characteristics demanded 
by the market. 

Comparative Influence of Sire and Dam — The relative importance of the sire anfl 
dam in stock breeding is not fully appreciated by American farmers. It should be borne in mind 
that the sire becomes the parent of numerous offspring, while it is possible for the dam, at best, 
to produce only a few individuals annually. As an illustration of how completely this idea is lost 
sight of by some inexperienced men, we relate the following incident : Not long since a young 
man in the Central West decided to become a breeder of Shorthorn cattle. He purchased ten cows 
at prices ranging from f 250 to $500. After the cows and heifers were delivered at his farm, the 
purchase of a bull appeared to him to be the next necessary step. Instead of taking plenty of 
time and asking the advice of experienced breeders, this young man foimd a bull which could be 
bought for $125 — a bull without individual merit and of indifferent breeding. This animal was 
purchased and placed at the head of the herd. Such a course, every experienced breeder will 
understand, can have but one outcome, namely, a failure to maintain the excellence of the 
foundation females, much less to improve them. 

At the present time females among pure breeds in the United States are selling at a much 
higher price, relatively, than our bulls. If a breeder can afford to pay $1,000 for a cow, he can 
afford to pay at least $5,000 for a bull. And yet, while we find many men who are anxious to pay 
$1,000 for a cow, how few would care to buy bulls at the figure stated. To be sure, the figures 
(juoted are exceptional and not within the reach of the average breeder. However, the principle 
holds true, whether the quality of the stock commands $5,000, $1,000, or $100. 

Much of what is good in our breeding of live stock has been copied from the best breeders of 
live stock in Great Britain. A study of the conditions in Great Britain will at once convince the 
most careless observer that good sires are appreciated to a much greater extent there than in the 
United States. The writer can not recall a single breeder of improved live stock, whose reputation 
and the excellence of whose stock is well known, who has not achieved this success largely 
through the intelligent or fortunate selection of one or more great sires. 

Breeding of Mules — Successful rearing of mules consists, principally, in the judicious 
selection of the mare. The dominant features of the ass require modification. The ass is too- 
large of head, too short of neck, too flat in sides, too low in shoulders, too narrow in croup, too 
thin in arms and thighs, and too narrow in hoof. These defects must be altered by the mare. 

On the other hand, the ass is preferable to the horse as a beast of burden, more patient in work, 
hardier, thicker-skinned, surer-footed, and especially adapted to warm climates. 

The natural defects of the ass indicate what should be avoided in selecting a sire-ass for breed- 
ing. He should have relatively, a small head, thin neck, round body, higH shoulders, broad croup, 
well-formed legs, and fiat hoofs. 

The mare, on the other hand, should have a small head, short, round body, broad chest, 
muscular thighs, and wide, roimd lioofs. She should be fourteen or fifteen hands high, to insure 
a foal that will at maturity reach thirteen or fourteen hands. 



232 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

The foal, therefore, it is to be borne in mind, takes form and peculiarities from the sire ; size, 
from the mare. It rarely inherits physical unsoundness from the mare, which may therefore be 
used where she would be excluded as a breeder of horses. The mule is rarely serviceable before it 
is four years old, but often works until thirty years of age. 

Reversion — It is sometimes discovered that characteristics appearing in the 
offspring, apparently entirely different from those present in either parent, are 
characteristics which were present in some ancestor more or less remote. When an 
animal resembles quite closely a distant ancestor it is a case of reversion. Other 
terms sometimes used to mean the same thing are " throwing back" and " breeding 
back." 

If the various ancestors of an individual animal have possessed to a marked 
degree desirable characteristics, and have not possessed undesirable characteristics 
to a marked degree, instances of reversion or atavism, in such cases, are not to be 
dreaded. On the other hand, if in the pedigree of an animal there appear a number 
of animals v/iiich possessed undesirable characteristics to a marked degree, it is not 
knoAvn at what time these undesirable characteristics will reajDpear in our breeding 
operations. It will be seen from this that a good pedigree, or good breeding, means 
that an animal shall be descended from a long line of ancestors of pronounced 
merit and that there shall be but few inferior animals in the pedigree. Xaturally, 
the longer the line of good ancestors, the more prepotent they will be, and their 
prepotency will extend along desired lines. It should be borne in mind that the 
laws governing hereditai-y transmission, atavism, and prepotency are equally opera- 
tive upon internal as well as external characteristics of the animal, and with refer- 
ence to undesirable characteristics as well as to those which are desirable. 

PedigTce in Grade Animals — Stock farmers quite generally are more or less indiffer- 
ent as to the principles of animal breeding, believing such principles to concern only breeders of 
pure-bred animals. For example, the question of pedigree in grade animals is universally disre- 
garded, although, as a matter of fact, every animal has a pedigree, whether it be native, grade, 
cross-bred, or pure-bred. The same things that make a good pedigree in pure-bred animals m°ke 
'a good pedigree in grade or cross-bred animals. The matter of selection of breeding stock is of 
greater importance in the breeding of pure-bred animals than in the breeding of grades, not only 
because a larger amount of capital is invested in each individual animal, but because pure-bred 
animals bred in line for generations are more prepotent than grade animals, and when we remember 
that prepotency is just as effective in the transmission of undesirable as desirable characteristics, 
and since we know that pure-bred animals are more prepotent than grades, we must be especially 
careful in the selection of pure-bred animals to get high individual merit. 

Breeders of registered animals too often attach too much importance to pedigree and too 
little to individual excellence, while breeders of animals for the market frequently attach too 
little importance to pedigree and too much to individual excellence. 



LAWS OF ANIMAL REPRODUCTION 233 

Reg'istry no Absolute Criterion — It is well to remember that not all pure-bred 
animals are well bred, or iu other words, not all pure-bred animals have good ancestors. Breeders' 
registry associations in the United States have thus far made but little progress in an attempt to 
make high individual merit a factor in the eligibility for registry ; about all that-is expected is 
that satisfactory evidence shall be furnished that the animal is descended from registered stock. 
Many stock farmers have made a mistake in believing that because an animal is registered, it is 
one of high individual excellence, and that a certificate of registry is a guarantee of the future 
usefulness of an animal. In most breeders' associations, a certificate of registry simply guarantees 
to the purchaser that the animal is descended from registered stock. 

In buying pure-bred animals, the reader should satisfy himself on two points : First, the 
presence in the pedigree, close up to the animal involved, of a large number of animals of high 
individual merit ; and, second, the absence of any considerable number of inferior animals, 
especially during the last few generations. 

CORRELATION AND FECUNDITY 

It has been observed that certain groups of characteristics in animals vary 
simultaneously, or in other words, that any circumstance or condition which affects 
one character is more than likely to change some other characteristic of the animal. 
For example, an unusual development in the fat-forming tendencies in animals 
appears to be detrimental to prolificacy and often to fecundity, as well as to any 
natural tendency for the production of a large amount of milk. Another example 
along the same line is that the horns of a wether never develop as do those of a 
ram. Many other examples might be cited, but as all would simply illustrate the 
same principle, those given will be sufficient. 

The important thing for the breeder to consider in this connection is that a successful attempt 
to improve to any considerable extent a characteristic which from his standpoint is particularly 
desirable, may be followed by alterations desirable or otherwise in some other character of the 
animal, and that the unduly high development of one part or characteristic of an animal is usually 
at the expense of some other part. 

Conditions Affecting Fecnndity — An animal is said to hQ fecund 
when it is fertile or has the ability to reproduce itself. An animal is said to be 
prolific when it is not only fecund, but also has a tendency to produce, at regular 
intervals, young in abundance. In general, the domestication of animals appears 
to have been favorable both to fecundity and to prolificacy. This is doubtless due 
to the fact that domesticated animals may be more regularly and intelligently 
nourished. Confinement of wild animals, on the other hand, has been sh6wn to 
be unfavorable to fecundity. 

The amount and kind of food also affects fecundity. In general, a laxative diet of succulent 
foods is favorable to fecundity, while dry foods and those which are designated as heating foods 



284 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

are unfavorable. Food-stuffs containing a large percentage of sugar are, in good practice, withheld 
from breeding animals, because it has been shown that such a diet is not well adapted to the secur- 
ing of good results from breeding animals. Animals in the prime of life are more fecund than the 
immature, or than animals of advanced age. Young sows farrowing their first litter, for example, 
seldom produce as large litters as do fully matured sows, and the same has been observed in the 
breeding of immature ewes. 

GRADING, CROSS-BREEDING, IN-AND-IN-BREEDING, 
AND LINE-BREEDING 

A system of breeding which involves the use of females of a common grade of 
more or less indifferent breeding, and the use upon these and their female progeny 
of pure-bred sires of merit for a series of years, is spoken of as grading-up or ivp- 
grading, the thought being that with each successive generation improvement upon 
the original stock is effected. Such a system of breeding is the"Tnost rational and 
valuable one within reach of the conditions which surround the average farmer. By 
starting even with females which have little to commend them, and mating them 
with pui'c-bred sires possessing to a marked degree the characteristics desired, rapid 
improvement is effected. 

It is of course unnecessary to start with distinctly inferior common stock. It is often economy 
to juy the best grade stock obtainable and buy pure-bred sires of correspondingly high merit. The 
first introduction of the blood of the pure-bred sire upon the common stock of the country is fol- 
lowed by the greatest improvement ; successive crosses show less rapid improvement until the fifth 
or sixth generation, when the grade females resulting from a system of grade breeding are practi- 
cally as good for the production of market animals as pure-bred females would be, provided pure- 
bred sii-es of high individual merit are always selected. 

The economy of such a system of breeding for the production of market animals will at once 
appeal to stock raisers, since it places within their reach the possibility of producing animals that 
will in every way meet the demands of the open market, without the necessity of purchasing high- 
bred females which, at best, during their whole period of usefulness, can influence only compara- 
tively few offspring. 

'Cross-breeding' — The correct use of the term croHS-breeding is in applying 
it to a system of breeding involving the use of pure-bred parents of different breeds. 
It is not difficult to see that if such a system of breeding were persistently and uni- 
versally followed it would not be long before our improved breeds would lose their 
identity and individuality. There can be but little question that such a system of 
breeding has been followed by good results in certain instances, especially in the 
production of market animals. While such a system of breeding has been em^iloyed 
in one or two instances in the origination of breeds of live stock, an attempt to use 



IN-AND-IN-BREEDING 285 

it for this purpose has usually been followed by failure; especially has this been 
found true where breeds of widely different characters have been crossed. 

The valuable Oxford breed of sheep is uudoubtedly the result of crossing the Old Hampshire 
and Cotswold breeds. It is not, however, for the production of new breeds that this system 
of breeding should be employed. For the production of animals for the block this system has 
been followed by good results where intelligently employed. By "intelligently employed" is 
meant the mating, for the production of meat-producing animals, of pure-bred individuals, of 
breeds bred for, and possessing, leading characteristics of a similar nature. This holds true only 
in some instances, as certain breeds do not appear to "nick" well, even though bred with the 
same object in view. " 

In the use of this system it is necessary to hazard the possibility of a failure by experimenting 
with new crosses or cross-breds, or use only such crosses as experience has long since proved will 
be followed by good results. 

The crossing of the Berkshire and Poland China breeds of hogs for the production of pork has 
proved a good one. The cross-bred animal resulting from the mating of the Siiorthorn and Gallo- 
way breeds for the production of prime steers has also been found successful. Scotch and English 
farmers often cross the Cheviot and the Leicester with good results. Other examples might be 
given, but in the judgment of the author, such a system of breeding will seldom be followed 
by any considerable number of stock raisers, and largely because of the practical reason that no 
matter how successful it may be it is open to the same objection as a system of breeding market 
animals from pure-bred dams and pure-bred sires of the same breed, viz., the expense of pure- 
bred females is in general prohibitive if the progeny can be sold only in the open market for prices 
which are little, if any, better than those which it is possible to secure for high grades produced 
by the intelligent and systematic use of pure-bred sires on common stock that has been graded up. 

Iii-aiicl-iii-breeding' — Inbreeding may be defined as a system of breeding 
together parent and offspring, or own brother's and sister's blood. No arbitrary rule 
has been agreed upon whereby we are^ble to define the term close-hreeding ; it may 
be looked upon, in general, as the mating of animals as closely related as second or 
possibly thiixl cousins. No other system of breeding has been so generally resorted 
to by breeders who have achieved marked success in the improvement of breeds. 

In the early history of all breeds, when it was highly desirable to establish a uniform type, 
and when there were but few animals of merit from among which to select breeding animals, it 
was found that a system of somewhat close breeding was not only the quickest and most satis- 
factory, but it was practically the only available system of breeding that would bring about 
satisfactory results. It was followed as a means to an end ; it was used, not because the great 
breeders believed in a system of inbreeding, but because it was apparently necessary. A system 
of inbreeding, as practiced by the originators and early improvers of breeds, was a far different 
proposition from what it is at the present time. Breeds were founded by animals only distantly 
related, if at all. Now, a majority of our improved breeds contain scores of individuals closely 
related. 



236 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Inbreeding has been so generally practiced that its further use should be left to the master 
spirits of the breeder's art, and should not be pursued by novices in the business of breeding fine 
stock. Even those famous breeders vrho made extensive use of a system of inbreeding to 
improve their flocks and herds agreed that inbreeding, long persisted in, was bound to be followed 
by loss of size, vigor, and fecundity. In the hands of our best breeders, where only occasionally 
resorted to, it may prove a valuable system of breeding, to refine evidences of coarseness, to improve 
early maturing qualities, to establish uniformity, and to increase prepotency. 

Line-breeding — Line-breeding is the "breeding together of animals pos- 
sessing a family rehitionship, but not close enough to be looked upon as close 
inbreeding. This system is the one usually advocated by adherents of the inbreed- 
ing system. It is the one which has been found more safe and satisfactory than the 
mating of more closely related animals. Its advantages, although somewhat longer 
in manifesting themselves, are the same as those which have in former years resulted 
from a system of inbreeding. If too long persisted in, the evil effects of the system 
will be the same as those noted in connection with a system of inbreeding followed 
by unskilled breeders. 

VARIATION 

All animals are more or less influenced by their environment or surroundings. 
Animals of the improved breeds deteriorate much more quickly when proper regard 
is not given to their comfort, feed, and other conditions surrounding them, than 
inferior animals improve, when surrounded by conditions well calculated to con- 
tribute to their general health, more rapid growth, and more uniform and perfect 
development. A very important factor in the improvement of our leading breeds 
of live stock has been the careful attention given to the surroundings of the 
animals at all times with conditions favorable for growth and development. 
Remove these conditions from animals of our improved breeds and they at once 
begin to deteriorate, and at a rapid rate. The excellence of jiure-bred stock can 
not be maintained, much less improved upon, unless conditions under which these 
animals were developed and imj^roved are continued. The feeding of animals, 
therefore, is an important factor in successful stock management. 

Good Foundation Stock Essential — Before considering the subject 
of stock feeding, however, the importance of stock breeding should be emphasized. 
To the man who appreciates the differences between well-bred stock and inferior 
stock, there appears to be a vast amount of inferior stock throughout the country. 
This inferiority is due more to careless methods of breeding than to insufficient or 
injudicious feeding. The highest type of animal i">roduction is impossible without 



IMPOETANT DATA CONCERNING BREEDING 



237 



the right kind of animals with which to begin. Intelligent breeding is necessary 
to secure the right kind of animal. The breeding of animals is not an exact 
science, and although we make^iise of the best methods of breeding, we are not 
always certain of reaching the desired end. It is doubly important, therefore, that 
the possibilities of breeding inferior animals should be as far as possible eliminated. 
As our country grows older and the prices of land and food-stuffs increase in value, 
the possibility of securing a profit from the keeping of inferior stock will become 
less and less, and better quality in live stock will be a necessity. 

Ill this connection it is interesting to note that the average quality of the live 
stock of Great Britain is much above that of the United States. In order to pay 
the rent the British farmer must keep profitable stock. Inferior stock has been 
found to be unprofitable ; hence the uniformly good quality of their live stock. Con- 
ditions in the United States which have made it possible to render profitable the 
keeping of any grade of live stock, no matter how inferior, have not contributed to 
the upgrading of the common stock of the coiuitry. We must look to the future, 
with its conditions more nearly comparable with those of Great Britain, to bring 
about this desired end. 

Maiiag'eiiieiit of Sires — The number of females a sire may cover with- 
out injury to himself or the quality of his get depends largely upon the age or. 
maturity of the sire ; the care in, or method of, standing him ; his condition ; his 
constitutional vigor ; and the length of the breeding season. A bull may usually 
be depended ujoon to .serve forty to sixty cows ; a stallion, fifty to seventy-five 
mares; a ram, forty to sixty ewes; and a boar, fifteen to twenty-five sows, without 
injury to the male or his progeny. 

IMPORTANT DATA KEGARDING BREEDING 



Animal 


Age 
to Begin 
Breeding 


Duration 

of 

Heat 


Interval 

between 

Heats 


Period of 
Gestation or 
Incubation 


Return for 

Breeding after 

Parturition 


Useful 

for 

Breeding 


Horse 


Years 

4 

3 

1 

2 

2 
i^tol 

2 
1 


Days 
5-7 
2 4 
2-4 
1-2 
1-2 


Days 

21-28 

21-28 

17-28 

9-12 


Days 

337-419 

226-326 

104-127 

143-160 

148-162 

30 

21 

28 

25 

28-35 

30-35 

55-70 

48-60 


Days 

7-10 

21-28 

::15-42 

120-180 

- 120-180 


Years 
10*12 


Cow.. 

Hog 

Sheep 


10-12 
6 
6 


Goat 


6 


Rabbit 




5-8 


Hen 








3-5 


Turkey 






:::;:::z ;:: 


10 


Guinea 






10 


Duck 






10 


Goose - . - 






10 


Dog - 








8 


Cat -- 








6 













238 



BKBEDING OF FAEM ANIMALS 



GESTATION CALENDAR 



Average period of gestation with horses, 


337 days ; 


cattle, 282 days 


; swine, 113 days ; 


sheep, 148 days. 




Date on which Animal is Expected 




Date on 


which Animal is Expected 


Date op 




to Give Birth 




Date op 




TO Give Birth 




Service 










Service , 




























Mare 


Cow 


Sow 


Ewe 




Mare 


Cow 


Sow 


Ewe 


January 1 

" 6 


Dec. 2 


Oct. 8 


Apr. 22 

" 27 
May 2 
" 7 
" 12 
" 17 


May 27 
June 1 
" 6 
" 11 
" 16 
" 21 


July 5 


June 6 


April 13 


Oct. 25 


Nov; 29 


" 7 
" 12 
" 17 
" 22 
" 27 


" 13 

" 18 
'• 23 

" 28 
Nov. 2 


" 10.. 


" 11 
" 16 
" 21 
" 26 
July 1 


" 17 

" 22 

" 27 

May 2 


" 30 
Nov. 4 
" 9 
" 14 
" 19 


Dec. 4 


" 11 


" 15 


'■ 9 


16 


" 20 


" 14 


21 


" 25 


" 19 


26 


" 30 


" 34 


" 31. 


Jan. 1 




" 22 


" 26 


August 4 


" 6 


" 12 


" 24 


' ' 2'.> 


February 5. 


" 6 


'• 12 


" 27 


July 1 


9 


" 11 


" 17 


" 29 


Jan. 3 


10 


" 11 


U jr. 


June 1 


" 6 


14 


" 10 


" 22 


Dee. 4 


" 8 


15. 


" 16 


" 22 


" 6 


" 11 


19 


" 21 


" 27 


" 9 


" 13 


20 


" 21 


" 27 


" 11 


" 16 


34 


" 26 


June 1 


" 14 


" 18 


25 


" 26 


Dec. 2 


" 16 


" 21 


" 29 


" 31 


" 6 


" 19 


" 23 


March 2 . 


Feb. 1 


5 


" 23 


" 27 


September 3 . . 


Aug. 5 


" 11 


" 24 


" 28 


" 7. 


" 6 
" 11 

" 16 


" 13 

" 18 
" 23 


" 27 
July 3 

" 7 


Aug. 1 
•' 6 
" 11 


8... 
13... 
18... 


" 10 
" 15 
" 20 


" 16 
" 21 
" 26 


" 29 
Jau. 3 

" 8 


Feb. 2 


" 12 




" 17 


" 12 


" 22 


" 21 


" 28 


" 12 


" 16 


23... 


" 25 


July 1 


" 13 


" 17 


" 27 _ 


" 26 


Jan. 2 


" 17 


" 21 


28... 


" 30 


" 6. 


" 18 


" 22 


April 1 


Mar. 3 


" 7 


" 22 


" 26 


Octobers 


Sept. 4 


" 11 


" 23 


." 27 


" 6 -- 


" 8 


" 12 


" 27 


" 31 


8 


" 9 


" 16 


" 28 


Mar. 4 


" 11 


" 13 


" 17 


Aug. 1 


Sept. 5 


" 13 


" 14 


" 21 


Feb. 2 


" 9 


" 16 


" 1« 


" 22 


" 6 


'• 10 


" 18 


" 19 


" 26 


" 7 


" 14 


" 21 


" 23 


" 27 


" 11 


" 15 


" 23 


" 24 


" 31 


" 12 


" 19 


" 26 


" 28 


Feb. 1 


" 16 


" 20 


" 28 


" 29 


Aug. 5 


" 17 


" 24 


May 1 


April 2 


" 6 


" 21 


" 25 


November 2... 


Oct. 4 


" 10 


" 22 


" 29 


" 6 


K 7 


" 11 


" 26 


" 30 


'7... 


" 9 


" 15 


" 27 


April 3 


" 11 


" 12 


" 16 


" 31 


Oct. 5 


12... 


" 14 


" 20 


Mar. 4 


" 8 


" 16 


" 17 


" 21 


Sept. 5 


" 10 


17... 


" 19 


" 25 


" 9 


" 13 


"21 . . 


" 22 

" 27 


" 36 
Mar. 3 


" 10 
" 15 


" 15 
" 20 


23.. 
27.. 


" 24 
" 29 


" 30 
Sept. 4 


" 14 
" 19 


" 18 


" 26.. -_ 


" 23 


" 31.. 


May 3 


'' 8 


" 20 


' 25 


December 2... 


Nov. 3 


" 9 


" 24 


" 28 


Junes 


It 7 


" 13 


" 25 


" 30' 


7... 


" 8 


" 14 


" 29 


May 3 


" 10 


" 12 
" 17 


" 18 
• 23 


" 30 
Oct. 5 


Nov. 4 
" 9 


12... 
17... 


" 13 

" 18 


" 19 
" 24 


April 3 

" 8 


" 8 


" 15 


" 13 


" 20 


" 22 


'' 38 


" 10 


" 14 


23... 


" 2.* 


" 29 


" 13 


" .18 


" 25 


" 27 


April 2 


" 15 


" 19 


27... 


" 28 


Oct. 4 


" 18 


" 23 


" 30.... 


June 1 


%i 7 


" 20 


" 24 













III. PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 

Familiarity with the science, or the principles governing the processes, of stock 
breeding and stock feeding is highly desirable from the standpoint of the stock 
raiser. It is not to be asserted that such knowledge is absolutely necessary, for it 
is well known that we have many successful stock breeders and stock feeders who 
know little, if anything, about the principles of the enterprise to which they look 
with confidence for a competency. Success in farming is dependent more upon a 
thorough familiarity with the art or practice than Avith the science or fundamental 
principles of the business. The art is the practice of stock feeding. Successful 
stock feeding practice may be acquired from personal contact and experience, and 
by carefully observing the methods of our most successful feeders. Such experience 
is acquired, at best, but slowly, and often at great expense. However, a knowledge 



PRINCIPLES OF I^TOCK FEEDING 239 

of the scientific principles of stock feeding makes it possible for the inexperienced 
to learn the art more quickly, at less expense, and withal more thoroughly. 
Fewer mistakes will be made in stock feeding practice by men who are thoroughly 
familiar with the principles of the business than by those ignorant of the same 
principles. Mistakes in feeding practice are more serious now than formerly, and 
with the lapse of time this factor will get worse instead of better, because com- 
petition will be keener, land and food-stuffs more valuable, and labor more expensive. 

Professor Brooks of Massachusetts well says: "Some knowledge of the com- 
position of animal products and of foods ; some knowledge of the laws of nutrition, 
and of the facts discovered by scientific men regarding the most economical pro- 
duclion of meat, of fat, of milk, and work, will help even the best practical feeder. 
Such knowledge will not render tlie exercise of the observing faculties and of the 
judgment the less important. It will rather shai'pen the one and broaden the other." 

Chemistry of Stock Feeding- — In an attempt to discover principles of 
stock feeding, investigators have given much attention to the chemical problems, 
neglecting to some extent, perhaps, the physical and the physiological factors 
involved. It is a pardonable oversight, since investigations tending to throw light 
upon the subject should begin with a study of the chemical substances necessary 
for the development of plant and animal life. The existence of our farm animals 
is dependent upon plant life. There must, therefore, be certain elements or com- 
pounds in the plant that contribute to the upbuilding of animal tissues. 

Of the seventy recognized chemical elements which in their infinite combinations 
form all organic and inorganic substances, only fifteen are involved in plant life, 
viz., calcium, carbon, chlorine,. fli(orine, hydrogen, iron, magnesium, manganese, 
nitrogen, oxygen, potassium, phosphorus, silicon, sodium, and sulphur. 

In making application of the chemistry of plant and animal bodies to the sub- 
ject of stock feeding it is seldom necessary to deal directly with these elements, 
but rather with certain compounds made up through various combinations of these 
elements, a knowledge of the nature of which combinations is unnecessary for a 
proper understanding of the chemistry of animal nutrition. These classes of com- 
pounds are practically the same in plant and animal bodies and are usually referred 
to as ash, crude fiber, fat, nitrogen-free extract, protein, and water. The percent- 
ages of crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract are commonly grouped together and 
referred to as carbohydrates. 

We reproduce a table from Doctor Jordair's The Feeding of Animals,^ which 

1 New York : The Macmillan Co. 



> 



240 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 



will aid the reader to understand the relation between the chemical elements and 
the chemical compounds to which we have referred. 

COMPOUNDS ELEMENTS 

C Water \ 2T^" 

( Hydrogen 

f Oxygen 
Sulphur 
Chlorine 
Incombustibia or Inorganic j Phosphorus 

Matter j Silicon. Fluorine 

Potassium 
Sodium 
Calcium 
Magnesium 
Iron 
[ Manganese 

I Carbon 
'• Oxygen 
I Hydrogen 

Protein .'. -j Nitrogen 

Sulphur (generally) 
Phosphorus (sometimes) 
Iron (in a few cases) 



All Vegetable or Animal Matter \ 



Combustible or Organic Matter ■{ 



( Carbon 



Carbohydrates and Fats < Oxygen 

{_ Hydrogen 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD-STUFFS 

It is necessary, first of all, that the stock raiser recognize the fact that the ele- 
ments with which he fertilizes his soil will reappear later on, in a measure large or 
small, in the bodies of the animals he fits for market. These element's will have 
sufi'ered two transformations in the meantime, — being assimilated, first, by the 
plant, and second by the animal. All the undigested portion of the animal's food 
will have been returned to the land as fertilizer, and all the digested i^ortion as 
well, except so much as has been permanently incorpoi-ated in the animal body, 
supposing, of course, that all the manure including the urine will be returned to 
the land. In fixing on the crops to be raised and the. feeds to be bought, therefore, 
the intelligent farmer has in mind (1) availability for the purpose desii'ed (depend- 
ing on composition and digestibility) and (2) fertilizer value. 

Water and Dry Matter — All food-stuffs contain a considerable proportion of water. 
The residue is included under the general term "dry matter." A proper ration for a farm animal 
will contain a quantity of dry substance which is practically uniform for animals of the same 
species, type, age, and condition. (See Table II., Page 246, Column A.) 

Because water is abundant in plant and animal life we should not conclude that it is value- 
less, but rather, as in the case of carbohydrates, that it is essential. The leading functions of water 
related to animal life are as a solvent and distributor of other compounds, while it gives elasticity 
and firmness as well to animal tissues. Investigations as to the percentage of water in animal 
bodies under normal conditions have shown that usually more than 50 per cent of the total 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD-STUFFS 241 

weight of an animal is water, tlie percentage varying with the age, condition, and species of 
animal. 

Ash and Organic Matter — The dry matter of a food is subdivided into ««/< (inorganic, 
or mineral components) and organic matter. The mineral substance is called " ash " because it 
alone remains when the organic matter is driven off by burning. 

From the foregoing chart (page 240) it will be observed that the constituent in plants and 
animals containing the greatest number of chemical elements is ash, and yet ash seldom consti- 
tutes more than one-tenth of the animal, and still less of the plant, seldom exceeding in general, 
one-twentieth. Clover hay contains a relatively high percentage of ash, while corn yields only a 
small amount. In the former case tnere are about 6.3 pounds, and in the latter 1.5 pounds ash per 
hundredweight. "While the relative amount of ash in all food-stuffs is small, it is absolutely 
necessary to promote both animal and vegetable growth. As a matter of fact, little attention has 
been paid to the ash constituent of plants intended for animal food, largely because there has seem- 
ingly been a sufficient supply in most food-stuffs. The author is of the opinion that future 
investigations will reveal the fact that the ash constituent in food-stuffs is more closely related to 
economical production of animal products than has been generally supposed. 

Protein, Fat, and Carbohydrates — The organic components of feeding-stuffs fall 
into three groups : Proteids, fats, and carbohydrates. 

Protein — Protein is the nitrogenous element in vegetable and animal structure. Compounds 
of this class vary much in their nature, composition, and relative feeding value. They have one 
thing in common, namely, the possession of nitrogen. They are, therefore, frequently spoken of 
as nitrogenous compounds. The most expensive constituent in fertilizers is nitrogen ; likewise 
the most costly food-stuffs are those possessing the highest percentage of digestible protein. 
Whatever other functions protein may have, its chief one is that of a flesh-former. 

Carbohydrates — The carbohydrates are of two kinds : Fiber and nitrogen-free extract. The 
fiber (composed principally of cellulose) is the hard, woody framework of the plant. The portion 
available for nutrition appears to be digested in the intestines. Ni-trogen-free extract includes 
the more easily digested starches, sugars, and gums. The carbohydrates are the cheapest food- 
sources of heat, energy, and fat. Since their function is the same as that of the digestible fats 
found in feeding-stuffs, and since the fats are about 2i times as effective as the carbohydrates, it 
is customary for simplicity's sake to reckon them together. The fat-content of a feeding-stuff is 
multiplied by 21 and the product is added to the amount of carbohydrates present. 

Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen — elements which may be derived from air and water — are the 
only elements found in the carbohydrates; they are frequently spoken of as nitrogen-free compounds. 

No other class of chemical compounds comprises so large a part of stock foods as the carbo- 
hydrates. In some cases, .as in certain varieties of hay and grain, they comprise 80 per cent of the 
dry matter. While abundant in most food-stuffs, they are nevertheless a valuable constituent, as 
being the chief source of energy and fat. 

Fat or Ether- extract — The percentages indicated in the column headed " Fat " (pages 244-5) 
include several compounds, mainl^^ however, fats that are soluble in ether. Some authorities 
prefer the use of the more accurate term of ether-extract in referring to these compounds. The 
value of the ether-extract in a given food-stuff depends largely upon its nature. 



212 PEINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 

DIGESTION AND GROWTH 

Only a part of the nutrients in food-stuffs ever nourishes the animal, since only 
a part is digested. We speak of a given food-stuff as containing a certain number 
of pounds of protein per liundreUweight. While this knowledge may in certain 
instances be useful to the feeder, the important thing to know is: How much 
digestible protein is there in a hundred pounds of a given food-stuff ? or, in other 
words, Hoiu much protein is there which is available for the use of the animal? 

Conditions Affecting^ Dig'estion — In the processes of digestion such 
portions of the food nutrients as are digestible are converted into a form which 
may be readily taken up by the absorbent vessels of the stomach and intestines. 
The undigested portions of food-stuffs are believed, in certain instances, to serve 
the purpose of distending the stomach and intestines. In general, a much higher 
percentage of the food nutrients in concentrates is digested than in roughages con- 
taining a large amount of crude fiber. Other conditions, also, affect the relative 
digestibility of nutrients in food-stuffs: (1) Certain classes of animals, such as 
cattle, sheep, and other ruminants, digest a higher percentage of crude fiber than 
do others ; for example, horses. ( 2 ) Not only is there a difference in classes of 
animals as to their digestive capacities, but there ai-e marked differences in animals 
of the same class in this regard. In other words, some animals are more econom- 
ical producers of animal products than others. 

Processes of Digestion — To be of any use, the digested food must be 
assimilated by the animal. The process of assimilation consists in the taking up 
or absorption of digested food particles, which are conveyed by the blood to every 
part of the animal. A general knowledge of where the various food nutrients are 
digested is desirable ; hence, a brief reference to the subject seems pertinent. 

The changes which take place in food during the processes of digestion are 
mainly chemical; but the first change or process is a mechanical one — that of 
mastication, the process during which the food is broken or ground up into fine 
particles, rendering it more susceptible to the chemical action of various juices with 
which the food particles come in contact during passage through the alimentary 
canal. The only food nutrient that is partially or wholly digested by the action of 
the digestive ferments with which the masticated food is brought in contact in the 
mouth is a portion of the starch constituent of carbohydrates. W^liether the amount 
digested is large or small depends upon the thoroughness of mastication and the 
length of time the food remains in the mouth. Under ordinary conditions, since 
the food remains there but a short time, the amount of starch digested is small. 



COMPOUNDING OF EATIONS 243 

The remainder of the digestible starch is digested partly in the stomach and 
partly in the intestines. In general, then, Ave may say that carbohydrates are 
digested partly in the mouth, partly in the stomach, and partly in the intestines. 
It should be borne in mind, however, that the best authorities believe that the 
digestion of carbohydrate compounds in the stomach is but slight at best. 

The food nutrients digested in the stomach under the action of the different 
ferments in gastric juice, the digestive agent with which the food comes in contact 
in the stomach, are proteicls. The remaining digestible proteids are digested in the 
intestines. Fats and oils are mainly digested in the intestines. 
COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 

Agricultural investigators can not hope to attain to mathematically exact results. 
Food constituents vary from sample to sample ; digestive power varies from animal 
to animal. The farmer must concern himself with average results, to meet indi- 
vidual conditions and requirements. Table I. (pages 244-5) is a compilation of the 
results of American analyses of most of the common food-stuffs, expressly arranged 
for use by the practical farmer in connection with Table II. (page 246), which is a 
compilation of the recommendations of German experimenters as to the average 
ration required by animals of various types and ages. 

In examining any ration to ascertain bow nearly it conforms to the standard, and what modifi- 
cations, if any, are needful, attention must be paid to five points; (1) Total amount of dry matter; 
(3) amount of digestible protein; (3) amount of digestible carbohydrates and fat; (4) amount of 
ether-extract or fat; (5) total amount of digestible nutrients, and ((5) nutritive ratio. 

Tlie Nutritive Ratio of a food-stuff or a ration is the relation tbat exists between the 
quantity of digestible protein and the quantity of digestible carbohydrates which it contains. 
Thus, if 100 pounds of brewer's grains contain 15 pounds of digestible protein and 45 pounds of 
digestible carbohydrates and fat, the nutritive ratio is expressed thus : i 

Protein is to Carboliydrates and Fat ns 15 is to J^, or, Protein is to Carbohydrates and. Fat as 1 is to 3, 
or, written mathematically. Protein : Carbohydrates + Fat : : 1 : 3. 

To find the nutritive ratio, then, of a feeding-stuff — that is, to find how many pounds or what 
fraction of a pound of digestible carbohydrates and fat it contains for each pound of digestible 
"protein^ we divide its digestible carbohydrates and fat content hy its digestible protein content. 
The metlium ratios lie between 1 part protein to 5| parts carbohydrates and fat (1 : o.o) and 1 part 
protein to 8 parts carbohydrates and fat(l : 8.0). If the carbohydrates largely predominate, the 
ratio is said to be wide ; if the proportion of protein is above the medium, the ratio is said to be 
narrow. Thus, timothy hay, with a nutritive ratio of 1 :16.6, makes a wide ration ; vetch hay 
(1 : 3.2) a narrow one. 

Narrow Nutritive Ratio — The following common and commercial food-stuffs are rela- 
tively high in digestible protein and low in digestible carbohydrates : 

Concentrates — Wheat bran, linseed oil meal, wheat middlings, cotton-seed meal, gluten meal, 
pea meal, cow-peas, and soj' beans. 

Roughage — Clover, alfalfa, cow-pea, and vetch hay. 

Wide Nutritive Ratio — The following food-stuffs are relatively high in digestible carbo- 
hydrates and low in digestible protein : 

Concentrates — Rye, corn, corn meal, and corn and cob meal. 

Roughage — Timothy, oat, red top, millet, and Hungarian grass hays, and corn stover. 



244 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 



TABLE I.— Digestible Ifutrients Pei- Pound of Various Feeding- -stuflfs, 
and Fertilizing Constituents Per 1,000 Pounds (Compiled by Willis MacGerald) 



Digestible 
Nutrients 



ja« o 
2 "i-P 

as O 



Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 



In Decimal Fractious 
of 1 Pound 



A 


H 


C 




.3Sf 


012 


.205 


.006 


.34t 


03( 


.216 


.008 


.28f 


()2( 


.169 


.004 


.347 


021 


.226 


.006 


.2T() 


.015 


.125 


.005 


.282 


Am. 


.138 


.005 


.292 


()2C 


.164 


.007 


Am 


.018 


.092 


.002 


.249 


.032 


.121 


005 


.234 


.021 


,150 


.004 


.2ir 


.01!: 


.111 


.004 


.378 


.026 


.212 


.010 


.ItiO 


Mt 


.076 


.002 


160 


.017 


.077 


.002 


207 


.01(1 


.125 


.004 


.20fi 


.006 


.131 


.004 


140 


.015 


.086 


.002 


269 


.014 


.178 


.005 


209 


.009 


.129 


007 


239 


006 


.154 


,002 


207 


.015 


.106 


.009 


258 


027 


.116 


.oi;-i 


280 


.020 


.158 


.010 


275 


.030 


.128 


.019 


868 


.028 


.466 


014 


859 


.064 


.417 


.015 


788 


048 


.418 


.020 


901 


.049 


.4,55 


.014 


923 


.045 


.540 


.013 


890 


.072 


.400 


.010 


871 


.0.59 


.436 


012 


834 


.079 


.435 


.015 


916 


.110 


.423 


.012 


847 


068 


.396 


.017 


903 


.084 


.459 


.015 


893 


108 


.410 


Oil 


8S7 


.108 


.422 


.015 


887 


.129 


406 


.031 


911 


.048 


.492 


010 


911 


.043 


498 


015 


869 


.078 


.393 


.004 


578 


.025 


.373 


.012 


.595 


.017 


.340 


.007 


924 


068 


.487 


().30 


904 


.004 


.372 


.004 


908 


.012 


.404 


.008 


8.58 


.007 


.426 


.006 . 


929 


.006 


.415 


.004 


864 


.043 


.341 


.008 . 


899 


.023 


.423 


010 . 



D 

.217 
.24' 
.189 
.247 
.140 
.177 
.193 
.109 
.153 
.171 
.130 
.238 
.094 
.094 
.135 

138 
.101 

192 



138 
160 
121 
143 
178 
158 

.494 
.481 
.466 
504 
.585 
472 
.495 
.514 
.533 
464 
543 
.518 
.530 
.535 
.540 
541 
471 
398 
.35 
.5,55 
.376 
416 
.433 
421 
.384 
.446 



2 =3 



1 to 1 7.0 
1 to 7.2 
1 to 8.4 
1 to 10.8 
1 to 8.3 
1 to 3 5 
1 to 5.6 
1 to 5.1 
1 to 3.8 
1 to 7.1 
1 to 5 8 
1 to 8.2 
1 to 4.2 
1 to 4.5 
1 to 12.5 
1 to 21.8 
1 to 5.7 
1 to 13.0 



1 to 14.3 
1 to 25.6 
1 to 7.0 
1 to 4.3 
1 to 7.9 
Ito 4.3 



to 16.6 
to 6.5 
to 8.7 
to 9 2 
to 12.0 
to 5.5 
to 7.4 
to 5.5 
to 3.8 
to 5.8 
to 5.4 
to 3.8 
to 3.9 
to 3.1 
to 10.3 
to 11.6 
to 5.0 
to 14.9 
to 20.0 
to 7.2 
to 93.0 
to 33.6 
to 60.8 
to 69.1 
to 7.9 
to 18.4 



Food 



Fertilizer Content 



Gi'een Fodders 

Timothy 

Kentucky Bluegrass 

Hungarian Grass 

Red top 

Orchard Grass 

Alfalfa : 

Red Clover 

Cowpeas 

Soy Beans _ 

Rye Fodder 

Barley Fodder _ 

Oat Fodder _ _ 

Oats and Peas 

Barley and Peas _ _ 

Green Corn Fodder _ 

Green Sorghum Fodder 

Rape 

Barnyard 'Millet 

Common Vetch 

Fermented Hoiighage 

Corn Silage . _ 

Sorghum Silage _ 

Cowpea Silage 

Soy Bean Silage 

Clover Silage. 

Alfalfa Silage 

Hay and Straw 

Ti mothy Hay 

Mixed Grass and Clover Hay 

Kentucky Bluegrass Hay 

Orchard Grass Hay 

Hungarian Hay 

Barnyard Millet Hay 

Mixed Grass Hay 

Mixed Rowen 

Alfalfa Hay 

Red Clover Hay 

Alsike Clover Hay 

Cowpea Hay 

Soy Bean Hay 

Vetch Hay __ 

Redtop Hay 

Oat Hay 

Oat and Vetch Hay 

Corn Fodder (Field-Cured) 

Corn Stover (Field-Cured) 

Peanut Hay. 

Wheat Straw 

Oat Straw _ 

Barley Straw 

Rye Straw 

Peavine Straw 

Soy Bean Straw 



3 9 



X! «! 



4 9 



12 6 
17.4 
11.9 

13 1 
12.0 



14.1 
1.6.1 
21.9 
20 7 
23.4 
19 5 
23 2 



11 5 



H 17 5.4 
n 10 4 2 9 
O 17.6 2 9 



1 3 



1 

9 
1 

1 
11.9 

1 1 



1 3 



3 6 



3.8 



4 6 



9 

8 8 
15 

18.8 
13 



15 5 
14 9 

16 8 
22 
22.3 
14 
10 8 



10 2 



5 910 2 
6.2| 2.6 

13 1 3.0 
4.6 2.8 

14 3 3 5 
17.5 4.0 



14 
9 8 
5.1 

12 4 
20 9 

7 9 
10 2 

13 2| 



DIGESTIBLE COXSTITUENTS OF FEEDING-STUFFS 



245 



TABLE I.— {Continued) 





Digestible 


Nutrients 










£ C-M 


X , 




z ■-• ^ 














1-, o 




>>Bja 


M^ 


a 














=«■:: w' 


53-^ 


fc 


03 


fI^ 



lu Decimal Fractions 
of 1 Pound 



A 


B 


C 




895 


.102 


.780 


.017 


S91 


.079 


.764 


043 


884 


.099 


.700 


.011 


891 


.087 


.692 


.016 


890 


()92 


.568 


.(U2 


874 


077 


.533 


.018 


895 


.168 


534 


.007 


897 


125 


.689 


.173 


091 


.011 


.056 


.001 


i;« 


.011 


.104 


.(K)l 


114 


.008 


.083 


.002 


095 


.010 


.077 


.002 


211 


.009 


.165 


.001 


153 


.018 


.091 


.004 


200 


.020 


.173 


.002 


091 


.010 


.065 


.003 


447 


.021 


.382 


.017 


881 


.122 


.453 


.027 


882 


.122 


586 


.038 


903 


.135 


.658 


.020 


876 


.082 


.647 


.009 


850 


.070 


.717 


.0*^ 


849 


.044 


.665 


.029 


895 


.168 


.5.32 


.007 


921 


.115 


.654 


.059 


884 


.115 


.548 


.020 


881 


.074 


.661 


.020 


895 


074 


..347 


.019 


873 


220 


.456 


.054 


889 


0V5 


.705 


.068 


918 


.2.58 


681 


.110 


922 


.204 


.682 


.088 


898 


.186 


.409 


017 


243 


.039 


.125 


.014 


918 


.157 


.478 


.051 


908 


.293 


.485 


.070 


899 


282 


.464 


028 


918 


.372 


.444 


.122 


889 


.003 


.369 


.017 


893 


.429 


.383 


069 


130 


017 


.051 


002 


102 


006 


.073 




2;« 


.010 


.144 


.011 


09ti 


.031 


.065 


.(K)8 


094 


.029 


.059 


003 


099 


.039 


.065 


Oil 


066 


.008 


.054 


.003 


128 


.036 


.132 


.037 



Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 



O a 
o =s 

aj si 



1> 

83: 
843 

.499 
79 

.660 
610 
702 
814 

067 
115 
091 
087 
174 
109 
193 
,075 
403 

.575 
708 
793 
729 
787 
709 
700 
769 
663 
.735 
.421 
.676 



E 

1 to 7.2 

1 to 9.7 

1 to 7.1 

1 to 7.9 

1 to 6. 1 

1 to 6.9 

1 to 3.2 

1 to 5.5 

1 to 5.1 
1 to 9.4 
1 to 10.3 
1 to 7.7 
1 to 18 3 
1 to 5.1 
1 to 8.7 
1 to 6.5 
1 to 18.2 



to 3.7 

to 4.8 
to 4.9 
to 7.9 
to 10.2 
to 15.1 
to 3.0 
to 9.3 
to 4 8 
to 8 9 
to 4.7 
to 2..1 



1 to 9, 
1 to 2. 
1 to 3. 
1 to 2. 
1 to 3 
1 to 3 
1 to 1. 
1 to 1. 
1 to 1 
ltol23. 
1 to 0. 
1 to 3. 
1 to 12. 
1 to 14, 
1 to 2. 
1 to 2. 
1 to 1. 
1 to 6. 
1 to 3. 



Food 



Grains and Seeds 

Wheat ._ 

Corn (average c^f all analyses) - 

Kye. 



Barley 

Oats. _ 

Buckwheat. 
Peas 



Whole Cottonseed 

Roots, Tubt rs, Ktc. 

Mangel Beets - -. 

Sugar Beets 

Carrots 

Flat Turnips... .-_ 

Potatoes __ __ 

Cabbages 

A rtichokes 

Field Pumpkins - - 

Acorns ( Fresh) 

Mill Products 

Wheat Bran 

Wlieat Shorts.-- 

Dark Feeding Flour 

Low-Grade Flour 

Corn Meal - - 

Corn-and-cob Meal 

Pea Meal - 

Oat Meal - -.- -. 

Rye Bran - - 

Barley Meal 

Buckwheat Bran 

Buckwheat Middlings -. - 

By-Prodiicts, Wastes, and Animal Products 

Hominy Chop -- - 

Gluten Meal 

Gluten Feed .-- 

Malt Sprouts.. 

Wet Brewer's Grains 

Dry Brewer's Grains 

Linseed Meal (Old Process) 

Linseed Bleal (New Process) 

Cottonseed Meal 

Cottonseed Hulls 

PeanutMeal 

Sugar-beet Leaves 

Sugar-beet Pulp 

Apple Pomace 

Gravity Skim-milk 

Separator Skim-milk ^ 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Whole Milk ^ 



Fertilizer Content 



lbs 
23 6 
18.2 
17.6 
15.1 
20 6 
14 4 

m.s 

31 3 

1.9 
2.2 
1.5 
1.8 
3 2 
3.8 
2 



26.7 
28 2 
31 8 
28.9 
15.8 
14.1 
3(L8 
23.5 
23.2 
15.5 



13.8 



<s 



lbs, 

7 9 

7 

8 2 
7.9 
8.2 
4.4 
8 2 

12 

0.9 
1.0 
9 
1.0 
1.2 
11 
1.4 



28 9 
13 5 
21 4 

5.6 

6.3 

6 

8.2 



22.8 
6.6 



6.8 

9.8 

3.3 

3.1 

14.3 

3.1 

10.3 

16.6 

18 3 

28.8 

2.5 

13 1 

1.5 

2 

2 
2 
2 
1.7 

1 4 
1 9 



lbs. 
5.0 

4 

5 4 
4 8 
6.2 
2.1 
9.9 

11 

3.8 
4 8 
5.1 
3.9 
4 6 
4 3 
4.7 



16.1 
5 9 
10.9 

3 5 
4.0 

4 7 
9.9 



14 
3 4 



3.4 

4.9 
0.5 
03 
16 3 
0.5 
0.9 
13.7 
13 9 
8.7 
10 2 
15.0 
6.2 

4 
1.3 
19 

1 9 
16 
1,8 
1 8 



17 



246 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 



TABLE II.— German Feeding Standards for Daily Rations, Adapted for 

Use in Connection with Table I. (Arranged by Willis MacGerald) 





Notes on 
Daily Rations 


Particulars 


op 5 


Digestible Nutrients | 


Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 


Kind of Animal 


Pro- 
tein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
and Fat 


Fat (ether 

extract) 

alone 


Total 




In pounds and decimal fractions thereof 


Growing 
Dairy Cattle 


Per Head 


Age iu mos. Live wt. lbs. 

2- 3 --.150 

. 3- e 300 

0-12 - .500 

12-18 700 

18-24 900 


A 

3.45 
7.20 
13..50 
18.20 
23.40 


B 

0.60 
0.90 
1.00 
1.26 
1..35 


C 

2.63 
4.. 52 
6.81 
9.38 
11.41 


0.300 
0..300 
0.250 
0.280 
0.270 


D 

3.23 
.5.42 
7.81 
10.64 
12.76 


1 to 4.5 
1 to 5.1 
1 to 6.8 
1 (0 7.5 
1 to 8.5 




Per Head 


2- 3 165 

3 6 330 


3.80 
7.92 
1.3.75 
18.00 
22.44 


0.69 
1.16 
1.38 
1.50 
1.68 
0.25 
0.30 
0.37 


2 89 
5..35 
8.14 
10.20 
12.06 


0..3.30 
0.495 
0.:i85 
0.375 
0..374 


3.58 
6.51 
9. .52 
11.70 
13.74 


1 to 4.2 
1 to 4.7 


Growing 
Beef Cattle 


0-12 550 

12-18 - 750 

18-24 -.935 


1 to 6.0 
1 to 6.8 
1 to 7.2 


Fattening 


Per lOO lbs. 
Liive W^eight 


Prelimitiary period 

Main period 


3.00 
3.00 
2.60 


1.61 
1.61 
1.66 


0.050 
0.070 
0.070 


1.86 
1.91 
1.93 


1 to 6.5 
1 to 5.4 


Beef Cattle 


Finishing period 


1 to 6.2 


Milch <!ow^s 


Per lOO lbs. 
Live Weight 


Milk yield 11 lbs. daily.. 

Milk yield lOVj lbs 

Milkyiekl :.'-J lbs. 

Milk yield ^;r' 2 lbs 


2.50 

2.70 
2.90 
3.20 


0.16 
0.20 
0.25 
0.33 


1.07 
1.19 
1.41 
1.48 


0.0.30 
0.040 
0.050 
0.080 


1.23 
1.39 
1.66 
1.81 


1 to 6.7 
1 to 6.0 
1 to 5.7 
1 to 4.5 




Per 100 lbs. 
Live AVeight 


A t rest 


1.80 
2.20 
2.50 

2.80 


0.07 
0.14 
0.20 
0.28 


0.82 
1.07 
1.26 
1.48 


0.010 
0.030 
0.050 

o.oso 


0.89 
1.21 
1.46 

1.7n 


1 to 11.8 






1 to 7.7 


Work Oxen 




1 to 6.5 




Heavy work .. 


1 to 5.3 




Per 100 lbs. 
Live Weight 




2.00 
2.40 
2.60 


0.15 
0.20 
0.25 


1.04 
1.24 
1.51 


0.040 
O.OfiO 
0.080 


1.19 
1.44 
1.76 


1 to 7.0 




Moderate work . 


1 to 6.2 




Heavy work 


1 to 6.0 


Growing 
Wool Sheep 


Per Head 


Age in mos. Live wt.lbs. 

4- 6 60 

6- 8 75 


1..50 
1.88 
1.96 
1.98 
2.20 


0.20 
0.21 
0.18 
0.16 
0.15 


1.02 
1.14 
1.07 
1.09 
1.15 


0.042 
0.045 
0.O43 
0.036 
0.030 


1.22 
1.35 
1.25 
1.25 
1.30 


1 to 5.0 
1 to 5.4 


8-11 85 

11-15... 90 

1.5-20 100 


1 to 6.0 
1 to 7.0 
1 to 7.7 


Growing 
Mutton Sheep 


Per Head 


4- 6 65 

6- 8.. 85 

8-11 100 

11-15. 120 

15-20.... 150 


1.69 
2.21 
2.40 
2.76 
3.30 


0.29 
0.30 
0..30 
0.26 
0.30 


1.14 
1.41 
1 54 
1.64 
1.94 


0.035 
0.060 
0.050 
0.060 
0.060 


1.43 
1.71 
1.84 
1.90 
2.24 


1 to 4.0 
1 to 4.8 
1 to 5.2 
1 to 6.3 
1 to 6.5 


Fattening 
Sheep 


Per 100 lbs. 
Live Weight 


Preliminary period 

Main period 


3.00 
2.80 


0.30 
0.35 


1-.61 
1.59 


0.050 
0.060 


1.91 
1.94 


1 to 5.4 
1 to 4.5 




Per 100 lbs. 
Live W^eight 




2.00 
2.30 
2.50 


0.12 
0.15 
0.29 


1.10 
127 
1.61 


0.020 
0.030 
0.050 


1.22 
1.43 
1.90 


1 to 9.1 


Mature Sheep 


Fine wool 


1 to 8.5 


Ewes, suckling lambs.. 


1 to 5.6 


Growing 
Breeding Swine 


Per Head 


Age in mos . Li ve wt.lbs. 

2- 3 45 

3- 5 100 

5- 6 120 

6- 8 175 

8-12 260 


1.98 
3.50 
3.84 
4.90 
6.. 50 


0.34 
0.,50 
44 
0.49 
0.55 


1.36 
2.49 
2.66 
3.40 
3.98 


0.045 
0.080 
0.048 
0.053 
0.052 


1.70 
2.99 
.3.10 
3.89 
4.53 


1 to 4.0 
1 to 5.0 
1 to 6.0 
1 to 7.0 
1 to 7.5 


Growing 
Fattening Swine 


Per Head 


2- 3 45 

3- 5 .110 

5- 6 1.50 

6- 8 200 

8-12 275 


1.98 
3.85 
4.95 

n.oo 

7.15 


0.34 
0..55 
0.65 
0.72 
0.83 


1.36 
2.71 
3.56 
4.28 
5.23 


0.045 
0.088 
0.090 
0.080 
0.083 


1.70 
3.29 
4.21 
5.00 
6.06 


1 to 4.0 
1 to 5.0 
1 to 5.5 
1 to 6.0 
1 to 6.4 


Fattening Swine 


Per lOO lbs. 
Live Weight 


Preliminary period 

Main period 


3-60 
3.20 
2.. 50 


0.45 
0.40 
0.27 


2.6() 
2.,51 
1.89 


0.070 
0.050 
0.040 


3.11 
2.91 

2.16 


1 to 5.9 
1 to 6.3 


Finish ing period 


1 to 7.0 




Per lOO lbs. 
Live Weight 


Brood sows 


2.30 


0.25 


1.64 


0.040 


1.89 


1 to 6.6 









COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 



247 



How to Use the Tables'— Suppose a herd of dairy cows, with an average 
weight of 1,000 pounds, and an average daily milk-yield of 23 pounds, is being fed a 
ration of 25 pounds of red clover hay, 2 pounds of cotton-seed meal, and 6 pounds 



JC-<.^x,^ix>Cy 



/&/(a^^<A.M^ci/\. ^l/\Di 




/2^^<§£ev^ 



(S^:^^^=>vfl-4-^^ 




GccC^ 









1-t.lS 



/.8V 



s:3ii 



3 

|Vot«-tv\ 






/.7o 



.7^ 



ss 



c 



D 






.tr^,.t?* 






'/.^o 



gf 



3.VO 






//.€.< 



/.^5 



3.f^ 



ni 



/.•vi^7 



A'.rs 



/.7.2 



//4./ 






'^s^^ 



z.f? 



/4^/f 



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/;^7 




of oats. In order to compare this ration with the standard, let us make a little 
blank, ruled precisely as are Tables I. and 11. (pages 244-6). Above the double 

1 NOTES ON TABLE I. —Coefficient of Digestibility — The percentage of a given element of nutri- 
tion (as. for example, protein) tliat is digested by an animal is called the coefficient of digestibility, and is 
expressed in the decimal form. Multiplying together the protein content (for example) of timothy hay and the 
coefficient of digestibility for timothy-hay protein when consumed by ruminating animals, we obtain the per- 
centage of protein in timothy hay that may be digested, on the average, by ruminants. 

Authorities — The following references give the authorities for the figures in the foregoing Table : 



Di- 



(E) Farmers' Bulletin 16. 

(F) W.H.Jordan: The Feeding of Animals. 
gestibility calculated for ruminants only. 

(G) Herbert Myrick : Key to Profitable Feeding. 
(H) W. A. Henry : Feeds and Feeding. Based on 

experiments with i-uminants and swine. 

(W) F. W. Woll : Handbook for Fanners and 
Dairymen. 



(A) United States Department of Agriculture : 
Yearbook for 1898. 

(B) United States Department of Agriculture : 
Yearbook, for 1895. 

(C) United States Department of Agriculture : 
Farmers' Bulletin 25. 

(D) Composition, Farmers' Bulletin 22; coefficients 
of digestibility (average for ruminants and swine). 
W. A. Henry : Feeds and Feeding. 

For references to the original sources from which all these figures have been drawn, the reader is referred to 
the several authors in question. 

Manurial Values — In computing the " Manurial Value per Ton " of each feeding-stuff, the following arbi- 
trary values have been assigned : Nitrogen, 15 cents a pound ; phosphoric acid. 5 cents a pound ; and potash, 
4 cents a pound. It mu.st be remembered that the figures given in the last four columns of Table II., giving, as 
they do, the total fertilizer content, merely furnish a basis for the comparison of manurial values, the portion of a 
feeding-stuff that is available to enrich the soil being only that part that is not assimilated by the animal. 



248 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING 



horizontal line we set down the standard, obtained by multiplying by 10 the stand- 
ard per hundredweight for a cow yielding 22 pounds of milk, as given in Table 11. 

In the first vertical column we set down the names and amounts of our severa) 
feeding-stuffs. ♦ 

To fill out the horizontal line showing the constituents of clover hay, we mul- 
tiply the constituents of 1 pound (as shown in Table I.) by 25. 

To fill out the cotton-seed meal line we multiply by 2 the quantities found in 
Table I. For oats, we multiply by 6. 

The nutritive ratio of each feeding-stuff is set down in column E, of course, 
exactly as it appears in Table I. 

Lastly, we foot up columns A, B, C, and D, and divide the sum of the C column 
(carbohydrates) by the sum of the B column (protein). That gives us the nutri- 
tive ratio of the whole ration, 1:4.6. Comparison with the standard shows that 
while the totals of diy matter and digestible nutrients and the quantity of carrlDhy- 
drates are not far out of the way, protein is in excess, while the nutritive ratio shows 
the same thing — that the ration as fed is too narrow. 

Since cotton-seed meal is a purchased product, and an expensive one, let us try 
cutting the amount in half, also reducing the oat ration to 5 pounds. Let us sub- 
stitute, in order to widen the ration and increase palatability, 12 pounds of corn 
silage (80 per cent water). Then our trial sheet will stand thus : 



iutZ<^ 







CatV>. 



b\«x>\<^t: 




'^^ 



CO 



a.vro 



/y,/o 



/44. 



//^7 



/Sl^^lXiAJJl^ 



^^ilXZaP^j^^'i.iut 




2S 



7US 



trie 



Hi 



//,4o 



/:5:g 



^cU^ 



^?f\.e.aLl^ ^ 



-n 



yj_ 



HH 



M 



I'J.'Z 



S 



H^^ 



HC 



Z.SH 



3M 



fiC,/ 



CP^'^*^'9^/' 




ll 



151 



Jl 



I'SS 



iM ni*i-5 



%%oC z-C'f l^.f^\ /Y'^s (:s.ss 

This ration is balanced, it is seen, to conform very closely to the standard. The 
nutritive ratio (1:5.58) is nearly what is desired, and the total of digestible nutri- 



THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 249 

ents is less than a pound in excess of standard requirements. An animal will 
digest more of an appetizing ration than of an uninviting one, but if the bulk of 
roughage is too great, the feeder will soon know it, and may reduce the whole 
ration uniformly, leaving the balance of nutrients unchanged. 

The foregoing is given, for purposes of illustration, and not as a model ration. 
It is far better for a farmer to think, and to build up, on the groundwork of what 
he knows, an individual systeni of economical, scientific feeding, than to try to 
follow blindly the model rations recommended by anyone else. The accompanying 
feeding standards tabulated on page 246 must be studied in the same open-minded 
spirit. Their use must vary with circumstances. Model rations are the fruit of 
individual experience; standard rations are the summing up of average experience. 
Study of feeding standards tells the farmer when he is on the right track; study of 
model rations suggests how rations in use may be modified along lines other feeders 
have found profitable. 

^ IV. THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIME STEERS 

"When the word "prime" is used to designate tlie quality and condition of cattle, 
we should understand it as signifying the very best grade, unless possibly we were 
to except a few fancy cattle of show-yard merit that occasionally reach the market. 
Prime steers are taken largely by buyers for the eastern markets and by packers for 
the dressed-beef trade, the former taking the bulk of such cattle. Such steers are 
practically above criticism as to both quality and condition. 

The prime steer should present conclusive evidence to sight and touch that he 
possesses to a high degree the form, condition, and quality demanded by the dealer 
in high-class beef. 

Form — The butcher demands not so much that parallelogramic form popu- 
larly spoken of by many authorities, as he does a high state of development in loin, 
crops, back, thighs, twist, and rump. He demands development in these regions 
because they are the parts from which are secured the high-priced cuts. The ani- 
mal should show plenty of depth and breadth, furnishing a large surface for flesh, 
without that tendency to be paunchy which is objectionable to the butcher. 

The butcher seeks, also, smooth, well-rounded general outlines, which indicate 
both thickness and evenness of flesh, and an absence of that tendency to be rough 
and coarse, which would mean loss to him, since the waste in the dressing of a 
rough, coarse beast would be out of proportion with the weight of marketable beef. 



250 



THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 




Then, too, the butcher is not unmindful of the fact that, having secured satis- 
factory development of the parts from Avliich are taken tlie high-priced cuts, there 

is an added value in securing 
thick, even flesh throughout, 
on the cheaper as well as on 
.the more valuable parts of the 
carcass. 

To the untrained eye, an un- 
usual development of loin, crops 
and thighs would detract from the 
1)eauty, style, or gracefulness of the 
beast. To the butcher, such devel- 
opment would increase rather than 
lessen its value. It should be clearly 
borne in mind, therefore, that no 
beauty of outline, style, or graceful- 
ness of carriage will ever take prece- 
dence of proper development in the 
most important and valuable parts 
of the bullock. 

We should not assume, however, 
that the highest development in these most valuable parts is incompatible with ideal beef form ; 
the truth of the matter is, we seldom get high development in the parts from which are taken the 
high-priced cuts except in animals which are symmetrically developed. It is entirely consistent 
and desirable, therefore, that we hold up as our ideal standard of the prime steer a combination of 
well-developed parts from which are taken the high-priced cuts, and a uniformly high develop- 
ment in all parts capable of taking on flesh, which gives to the animal symmetry and smoothness 
of outline, and that style and that beauty otherwise impossible. Correct conformation and prime 
condition must accompany each other in order to secure a high percentage of dressed beef. 

Quality and Condition — Quality may be considered as (a) general 
quality and (b) quality of flesh and condition of animal. 

(a) General Quality — General quality in a fat steer is indicated by a 
medium-sized, fine, clean cut, breedy-featured head, bearing ears of moderate size 
and texture ; short legs with clean, fine bone ; a fine, nicely tapering tail ; fine hair ; 
a pliable skiji of medium thickness, and smooth, well-rounded outlines. 

(b) Quality of Flesh and Condition of Animal — The quahty of beef 
depends largely upon the condition of the animal. By condition we refer to the 
degree of fatness of a bullock. It should not be assumed, however, that the highest 
quality of beef is found in the fattest beast. 



Fig. 140. Typical prime steer: High-grade Hereford fattened on 
the University of Illinois farm, Urbana, 111. (Mumford.) 



CHAKACTEKISTICS OF PRIME STEERS 



251 



There are three principal reasons for fattening a steer : (1) In order that, when dressed, there 
shall not be a high percentage of offal or waste, as a fat animal, other things being equal, will dress 
a higher percentage of carcass than a half fat or a thin one ; furthermore, in the fat animal, the 
proportion of those parts, which, from their very nature are unsaleable, is reduced to the mini- 
mum ; (2) in order that the flesh or lean meat shall be rendered more tender, more juicy, and of 
better flavor by the deposition of fat throughout its substance ; (3) in order to permit of proper 
ripening of the meat, as a thin carcass, being full of moisture and lacking the protection of a 
covering of fat, will rot before it will ripen. 

Conditions Influencing Beef Quality — The possibility of securing the 
highest qualit}' in beef is influenced by the breeding and gen-eral quality of the 
animal. Methods both of growing and fattening the beast also influence the quality 
of its flesh. There is, too, a quality of flesh which is peculiar to the individual, and 
which is independent both of breeding and methods of feeding. Desirable quality 
in flesh is indicated by a firm, yet mellow and springy, consistency of the flesh at 

4 




Fig. 141. Names and location of points of external conformation of beef cattle. 1, muzzle; 2, face; 3, forehead; 
4, poll; 5, crest; 6, throat; 7, dewlap; 8, brisket; 9, neck; 10, crops; 11, "back; 12, loin; 13, rump; 14, thigh; 
15, flank; 16, fore ribs; 17, fore flank; 18, setting on of tail; 19, twist; 20, breast; 21, hip; 22, hock. (Mumford.) 

the crops, along the back, at the loins and even on the sides, beneath the gentle 
pressure of the outstretched hand. Good quality of flesh is indicated in the fat 
steer by the absence of ties and rolls, or patches of gaudy, flabby fat. 

A tendency to lay on fat in bunches and to roll at the loin indicates that the fat has been 
deposited in large masses and has not been so evenly distributed throughout the animal as to give 
to the flesh that marbled character so necessary to the highest quality in beef. An animal without 
a tendency to lay on fat unevenly may become bunchy about the tailhead and show other indica- 
tions of a lack of a well-marbled condition of the flesh simply by being carried to the point of 
excessive fatness. 

Judging Beeves on the Hoof — Outstanding coarseness and lack of gen- 
eral quality in the live animal without doubt are inseparably linked with undesirable 
texture in the beef cut from such a beast. Fulness at base of tongue, fulness or a 



252 THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 

roll of fat in front of point of shoulder, a full twist, a large mellow cod, a low, full, 
thick flank that stands out and rolls visibly as the animal walks, with fulness and 
smoothness at rump and tailhead indicate that degree of fatness which is essential 
to the highest quality in beef. 

These points, which are to be judged by sight rather than by touch, are the ones most 
depended upon by buyers at the yards. If a close examination is desirable and possible we find 
that when the ends of the fingers are gently pressed into the flesh on the side of the beast in an 
effort to find the ribs, there should be a firmness of flesh that does not admit of freely and easily 
forcing the fingers to the ribs and between them. A lack of firmness indicates the presence of too 
large a proportion of fat, which may be due either to a too-fat or overdone condition of the 
animal, or to an inherent lack of flesh, either of which is decidedly undesirable. A proper degree 
of firmness shows the presence of plenty of flesh or lean meat. Such an examination reveals the 
quality of the surface flesh, but can not always be relied upon to determine the quality of the beef 
throughout the carcass. 

It sometimes occurs that a steer may cut too fat on the block and yet not have exhibited 
on foot bunchiness or other indications of an overdone condition. Animals which are carried to 
an extreme degree of fatness, as is seen in some show animals and occasionally among market 
animals, give evidence of an overdone condition, being very soft in flesh — a condition which often 
passes into a very hard, unyielding one. It sometimes happens, too, that certain individual 
animals become hard in the surface fat without ever having shown by softness of their flesh that 
they were approaching an overdone condition. There is such a thing, however, as an animal 
becoming too firm in the flesh, and such firmness indicating an overdone condition. 

What the Market Demands — Prime steers weighing from 1,200 to 
1,400 pounds are wanted by shippers, by packers, and by exporters. The demand 
for steers of these weights, of good, choice, and medium quality, is greater than for 
steers of any other weight ; hence the market is less likely to be overstocked with 
these grades. Especially is this true with the steers of choice and prime quality. 

It is as difficult as it is unnecessary to decide whether form, condition, or qual- 
ity is of greatest importance to the butcher. The main point to bear in mind 
is, that an animal characteristically deficient in any one of the foregoing require- 
ments, is disqualified to meet the full demands of the dealer in high-class beef and 
consequently is not to be considered as a prime steer. Whether a lack of quality 
or a lack of condition is more evident in the cattle seen at the Union Stock Yard, 
Chicago, depends largely upon the prevailing prices for food-stuffs and the prices 
for cattle on foot. When high prices for food-stuffs have prevailed for some time, 
and when market prices for cattle have been ruling high, the tendency among 
feeders is to send their cattle to market in a half-fat condition, in order to take 
advantage of the prevailing high prices and avoid feeding too much of high-priced 
food-stuffs, in which case many cattle would lack condition rather than quality. 



SELECTION OF CHOICE FEEDERS 



253 



CHARACTERISTICS OF CHOICE FEEDERS 

It is highly desirable to describe in detail a standard grade of stockers and 
feeders ; otherwise we should confuse rather than define. If the animals in one 
ffrade of stockers and feeders 




Fig. 142. Typical choice feeder: High-grade Hereford photo- 
graphed at the Union Stock Yard, Chicago. (Mumford.) 



are more uniform than in the 
others, it is in the choice grade. 
Steers of this grade will, under 
proper management, develop 
into choice and prime steers. 
It would seem wise, therefore, 
to consider in detail their desir- 
able characteristics. 

It may be said then that we 
demand in choice stockers and 
feeders, first, the ability to fin- 
ish as choice or prime steers ; 
and second, the ability to make 
economical gains in flesh and 
fat. As far as our present 
knowledge of the matter goes, 
we look for indications of these tendencies in the form, quality, and constitution. 

Form — The general form should be low-set, deep, broad, and compact rather 
than high up, gaunt, narrow, and loosely made. Stockers and feeders should be 
low-set, or on short legs, because animals of this conformation are almost invariably 
good feeders and capable of early maturity. They should be deep, broad, and 
compact, because this conformation indicates good constitution, capacity for growth 
and for producing ultimately a relatively high percentage of the most valuable 
cuts. 

Select feeders with broad, flat backs and long, level rumps. They should possess 
straight top and underlines, which should be nearly parallel; and should be low at 
the flanks, thus forming what we have just spoken of as "good depth," for the 
barrel of stockers and feeders as well as dairy cows should be roomy. An animal 
which is too paunchy, however, as has been remarked, is objectionable to the 
butcher. The matter of low flanks should be emphasized, as it is an almost unfail- 
ing sign of good constitution and good feeding quality. It should be borne in 



254 THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 

mind that the stocker and feeder, thin in flesh and lai-gely destitute of external 
or surface fat, affords the best possible opportunity of determining the covering 
of natural flesh characteristic of the animal. 

Secure as much smoothness of outline as is consistent with low flesh, being 
especially careful to avoid too great prominence in hips, tailhead, and shoulders. 
Avoid rough, open shoulders, sway backs, and large coarse heads with small eyes 
set in the side of the head. Short, broad heads and short, thick necks indicate 
strong tendencies toward beef making. A large, prominent, and mild eye is to be 
desired. The mild eye denotes that the animal has a quiet disposition, which all 
feeders know is so desirable in a steer intended for the feed lot. The distance 
between eye and horn should be short and the horn should be flat and of medium 
fineness, rather than round and coarse. The lower jaw should be heavily coated 
with muscle ; the muzzle, lips, and mouth should be large but not coarse. 

Quality — It is well to distinguish between what might be called (a) general 
quality and (b) handling quality. 

(a) General Quality — By general quality is meant general refinement of 
external conformation as seen in the head, horn, bone, compactness, and smooth- 
ness of outline. General quality is affected by nothing so much as by breeding; in 
fact, the two are very closely associated. Good quality is seldom found in a plainly 
bred steer, but is generally characteristic of a well-bred animal. The desirability 
of general quality can not be too strongly emphasized. While it is a characteristic 
that involves many points and is difficult to describe, its presence or absence is 
quickly discerned by the trained eye of the intelligent buyer. It is this character- 
istic in the stockers and feeders more than any other that we depend upon as indi- 
cating that the animal has within it the possibility of making a prime steer. 

The ability to select stockers and feeders which have within them the possibility of making 
prime steers, is one of the first and most important lessons for the stockman to learn. Profits in 
steer feeding come not so much from skill in feeding and management as from intelligent buying 
and selling. The profit resulting from an increase, during the fattening period, of the value per 
pound of the total weight of the animal is as important as that resulting from the method employed 
in the feeding and management. It is seldom possible to produce at a profit gains which do not 
increase the value per pound of the total weight of the animal. Hence the importance of intelli- 
gent buying, or the selection of feeders and stockers of good quality. 

(b) Handling Quality — Good handling quality indicates that the possessor 
is a good feeder. It shows that the animal is in good health or thrift and capable 
of beginning to gain as soon as an abundance of food is supplied. We speak of 
cattle as possessing good handling quality when the skin is mellow and loose. A 



CHARACTERISTICS OF CHOICE FEEDERS 255 

thick, mossy coat of hair of medium fiueness and a moderately thick skin are also 
desirable. 

Constitution — The points indicative of good constitution have practically 
been covered under ''Form" (page 253). Good constitution is indicated by a wide, 
deep chest, by fulness in the heart girth, depth, and breadth of body, and good 
handling quality. While we want refinement of form and bone, otherwise spoken 
of as general quality, we do not want that refinement carried to the point of 
delicacy. Too much refinement means delicacy, or a lack of constitution, and no 
animal lacking in constitution should find its way into the feed lot. 

Breeds — The desirable characteristics of beef form, quality, and constitution 
should be found in well-bred high grades of any of the leading beef breeds. In the 
interest of uniformity in the finished product it should be observed that high grade 
Herefords can usually be put on the market in the fewest number of days and 
suffer most from carrying beyond the point of ripeness ; that Shorthorns and Aber- 
deen-Angus grades, while a little slower to mature, are in fully as strong demand 
in the market as are grade Herefords ; and that Aberdeen-Angus and Galloways 
may be carried longer on full feed than other breeds of beef cattle without indi- 
cations of the bunches or rolls of fat which are so strongly discriminated against in 
our markets. 

After all that may be said, however, as to breed, the important consideration is 
to see that the steer should be a high grade of some one of the beef breeds, and that 
the selection of the individual should receive more attention than the selection of 
the breed. 

Age and Condition for Feeding — The question of age should not be 
overlooked. A thrifty young steer of good weight and in good flesh is to be pre- 
ferred to an older stunted steer. It should be said, furthermore, that a stunted 
steer of any age or weight is a profit spoiler in the feed lot. Uniformity in color of 
feeders is desirable, but the mistake should not be made of getting uniformity 
of color at the expense of more important characteristics. It is possible to secure 
good colors, reds and blacks, in steers of very poor quality and containing very 
little beef blood. If it is a question of choosing between a combination of good 
quality and correct conformation on the one hand, and good colors on the other, 
take the quality and conformation and let someone else have the colors. A one- 
eighth blood Hereford may have Hereford markings, or a one-eighth blood Angus, 
tlie color and polled characteristic of the pure Angus, and yet both grades may 
have but little beef character. 



256 



THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 



HOW TO TELL. A GOOD COW 




Fig. 143. Names and location of points in external conformation of the cow. 
1, muzzle; 2, face; 3, forehead; 4, poll; 5, lower jaw; 6, cheek; 7, neck; 
8, back; 9, loin; 10, hip or hook; 11, rump; 12, pelvic arch; 13, switch; 
14, thigh; 15, flank; 16, udder; 17, barrel or belly; 18, fore flank; 19, 
brisket; 20, dewlap; 21, heart girth; 22, loin girth. (Mumford.) 



For Dairy — Head 
small and clean-cut ; muzzle 
large ; forehead straight or 
concave ; neck long and thin 
without being scrawny; horns 
relatively small ; eyes bright 
and prominent; shoulders 
thin, loin broad but not 
thickly fleshed as in beef 
cattle; thighs thin; hindquar- 
ters long, deep, and power- 
ful; flank high; legs short and 
wide apart ; tail long, slim, 
and loosely jointed ; frame 
markedly wedge shaped; 
tapering from rump to shoul- 
der ; udder set broadly on 
abdomen, of generous size, 
extending high up behind, 
well held up to abdomen, not 
loose, pendulous or fleshy; milk veins large and prominent, on both udder and belly; teats 
medium size, evenly placed, and 
wide apart. A fleshy udder, firm 
to touch when empty, and retain- 
ing its size and form after milking, 
indicates predisposition to inflam- 
matory disease. Skin clean, with 
a fresh bright color; hair fine, thick, 
and soft ; temperament active and 
docile; large feeder. 

The main points in the selec- 
tion of a cow are to secure large 
udders that are not fleshy, and large 
roomy bellies, showing capacity for 
consumption of large quantities of 
food. Of course, great eaters and 
large producers are not always prof- 
itable cows, but they generally are. 
n^^c „^^ oniri^rv. ,^..rvfit.iKia nnlocc FiG. 144. Tj'pical dairy COW : Rose, grade Shorthorn, owned by the 
Cows are seldom profitable unless University of Ilhnois, Urbana, ill Record at 10 years of age : 

thev produce at least 250 pounds, Milk in one year, 11,388 pounds; butter fat, 565.13 pounds; butter, 

•' ^ 678.16 pounds; average.fat content of milk, 4.96 per cent. Milk in 

or more, of butter per year. one week, 317 pounds; butter in one week, 19.77 pounds. 




SELECTION OF A HORSE 



257 



HOW TO TELL. A GOOD HORSE 

For Speed — Height, 15i hands; minimum weight, 1,000 pounds; ears, pointed, flexible, 
set on side, not on top of head ; head, symmetrical, full under forelock and between ears ; neck, 
long and slim, with little or no arch, set well up on "top corner" of body ; front legs reaching out 
true, strong and straight ; front feet not thrown sidewise when speeding ; shoulders, set on 
obliquely ; body, short top 
line, long lower line ; hips 
well forward ; muscles along 
back prominent, development 
judged by pressure with 
thumb and fingers ; hind legs 
crooked at hock (but not too 
much so or they will be weak, 
and not too little or animal 
will "pound"); portion of 
leg from hock to fetlock and 
also from knee to fetlock 
relatively short and broad 
(not roundish) when viewed 
sidewise, but thin when seen 
from the rear ; line drawn 
from hock to fetlock nearly 
straight, concave rather than 
convex; if convex it is 
' ' curby " ; hoofs not pointing 
out ; skin moderately thick 
and firm; chest capacity 
large ; body round. 

For Work — Full fore- 
head ; intelligent face ; shoul- 
ders strong and sloping ; gait 
free and easy ; stride long ; 
arm muscular ; legs strong, 

rather short and flat ; pastern sloping ; feet large and not too flat ; body large in girth and round; 
back broad, with muscular quarters ; croup wide ; weight (not clumsy) from 1,200 to 1,600 pounds, 
according to work required ; horse docile, hearty, and easily kept. 

Stallion for Breeding — As nearly as possible a perfect type of the sort of animal 
desired in the colt. First essentials, soundness, freedom from defects and blemishes, and good size. 
Should be thoroughbred of good disposition. 15i or 16 hands high; minimum weight, about 1,200 
pounds. American horse as a rule too small, and while size is usually the gift of the mare, 
heredity must not be limited by undersized sire. Good size of prime importance for track, road, 
or farm. Disposition is imparted by sire, therefore avoid vicious or logy stallions. Other points 




Fig. 145. Names and location of points used in referring to the external 
conformation of the horse. 1, muzzle; 2, face; 3, forehead; 4, poll; 5, 
crest; 6, cheek; 7, lower jaw; 8, throat; 9, neck; 10, withers; 11, point of 
shoulder; 12, breast; 1.3, elbow; 14, forearm; 15, knee; 16, cannon or shank; 
17, fetlock; 18, pastern; 19, coronet; 20. foot; 21, girth; 22, belly; 2.3, flank; 
24, back; 25, loin; 26, haunch or hip; 27, croup; 38, dock; 29, thigh or 
quarter; 30, lower thigh or gaskin; 31, hock; 32, heel. (Mumford.) 



258 



THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 



Body, well coupled up ; color uniform and bright ; quarters, full ; shoulders, full ; chest, broad ; 
head, finely shaped ; ears, large, flexible, pointed, straight, and alert ; eye, quick, full, and gentle ; 
nostrils, large; hair, soft and silky; skin not thin ; legs flat, not roundish, and muscular; hoofs, 
black ; feet broad, flat, and round ; in speeding, feet thrown not sidcwise, but straight forward. Do 
not expect a good colt from service of a traveling stallion, concerning whose antecedents you 
know nothing. 

Mare for Breeding — Of good size and color, sound in every particular ; in the vigor of 
life ; large powers of endurance, good traveler, active gait, well bred ; disposition gentle ; feet 
having neither toe nor quarter crack. The best breeding mare is not too good to use. More of 
the good physical qualities of the colt come from the mother than from the sire. 

HOW TO SELECT A BREEDING BOAR 

Fat Hogs — The breeding boar should be a good representative of some one of the leading 
breeds of swine. The question of selecting a good individual is more important than the selection 
of the breed. The use of grade boars and those of inferior pedigree can not be too strongly dis- 




Fiu. 14(1. Typical fat hog. (From a photograph fur- 
nished ioy Wallace's Farmer.) 



Fig. 147. Typical bacon hog : Engli.sh prize- winning 
Tamworth sow. (Breeder's Gazette.) 



couraged. The character of the head should be such as to indicate masculinity — broad, and in 
length, medium to short ; the neck should be short and broad, and smoothly joined to the shoul- 
ders ; the jowl of good size, as indicating good feeding quality ; the legs should be short, strong, 
and straight, well placed to the outside of the body ; back and loin straight or slightly arched, 
with plenty of width ; the chest should be wide and deep ; the flanks continuing the straight 
undedine, making the sides deep ; the girth should be large, both at the heart and flank ; hams 
and shoulders well developed. Compactness and symmetry throughout are desirable points, while 
strength of limb and masculine character should not be sacrificed to less important points. Such 
a boar selected from the Poland China, Berkshire, Chester White, or Duroc-Jersey breeds and bred 
to sows of merit that are high grades of some one of the above breeds will produce pigs which, if 
properly fed, will weigh 200 pounds at six months of age, and which > vill possess the desirable 



THE IDEAL MUTTOX SHEEP 



259 




Fig. 148. Names and location of points of external conformation 
of the pif?. ], snout; 2, face; 3, forehead; .4, neck; 5, jowl; 
6, breast; 7, shoulder; 8, ham; 9, flank; 10, belly; 11, heart 
girth; 12, back; 13, loin; 14, rump; 15, toes; 10, side. (Mum- 
ford.) 



characteristics of the fat hog for American markets, namely, well-developed hams and shoulders, 

13 12 good loins, and sides without too much 

waste. 

Bacon Hogs — In breeding hogs 
to produce the highest class of bacon, 
it is necessary to select animals which 
have been especially bred for this pur- 
pose, and feed them upon a ration best 
calculated to produce fine quality. The 
large Yorkshire and Tam worth are 
most extensively used for producing 
bacon hogs. They do not have the 
heavy jowls so prevalent in fat hogs, 
nor do they possess such a large amount 
of superfluous fat. The lean and fat in 
the pork is evenly distributed, while 
the sides are long and deep ; the belly 

wide and thick, and the back thinly fleshed. The fat should cover the body in an even layer 

throughout — it should not be more than about H inches in thickness, nor should it be less than 

about 1 inch. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF MUTTON^ SHEEP 

The student of animal form soon discovers that the important points in all 
animals bred and fed for meat production are noticeably similar. In considering 
the form of the prime steer, the fat hog or the mutton sheep, it is the same low- 
set, broad, and compact confer- 4 
mation that is demanded. 

Producers must cater to the 
demands of dealers and consum- 
ers or, owing to lessened con- 
sumption or to lower prices for 
an undesirable product, sacrifice 
what they have to offer. 

The butcher's ideal of 
a mutton sheep involves 
form, fleece quality, and condi- 
tion, the main points being form, 
condition, and such points of gen- 

pval nnalifv q<5 nnn^-viVm^a ir\ iha Fig. 149. Pointsof external conformation of the sheep. 1, muzzle; 

eidl quality as COniriDUte to tne 2, face; 3, forehead; 4, poll; 5, scrag or neck; 0, brisket; 7, 

better-killine- onalitlP<? TIip forearm; 8, heart girth; 9, back; lO, loin; ll, rump, 12, hip; 

ueutei miiiug qiidiuieb. ±ne 13, dock; 14, thigh, or leg of mutton; 15, belly. (Mumford.) 




CHARACTERISTICS OF MUTTON SHEEP 



261 




Fig. 151. Typical fat .sheep: Shropshire wether, 
champion in middle wool class, International 
Fat Stock Show, Chicago, 1901. (Photograph 
furnished by The American Sheep Breeder.) 



question of fleece is important only in so far 

as it increases or decreases the total value 

of the sheep to the slaughterer. Good 

killing or dressing quality js indicated by 

an absence, in the general appearance of 

the animal, of all wideness or coarseness. 

The bones of the leg and the head should 

be as fine as is consistent Avith good feeding 

quality and constitutional vigor. 

The butcher's ideal mutton sheep might be one 

possessing bone so fine that the animal would be 

too delicate to make a profitable feeder. A thor- 
ough knowledge of the butcher's ideal is essential, 

but if the butcher's ideal animal for the block is at 

variance with the feeder's ideal for the feed lot, shed 

or pen, the feed lot ideal is bound to receive the 

most serious consideration at the hands of the pro- 
ducer. Fortunately, the butcher's ideal and the 

most profitable type of mutton sheep to feed are 

not materiallj^ different. By careful study the feeder can meet the demands of the butcher in 

almost every particular without sacrificing anything in animals so selected as profitable feeders. 
Breeding — To make a profitable carcass of beef and a profitable animal in 

the feed lot, it has been said that well-bred beef steers are necessary. The state- 
ment applies with equal force in speaking of 
mutton sheep. The importance of breeding, 
as affecting the profitableness of a mutton 
sheep, is not generally enough recognized. 
High grades of almost any of the mutton 
breeds possess the qualities most sought by 
producer, dealer, and consumer, viz. : short 
legs and neck ; broad back and loins ; long, 
level rumps, well fleshed thighs, low, full 
flunks, and thick flesh. 

Judging the Mutton Kani — The 
presence or absence of these characteristics 
is not so easily recognized in a sheep as in a 
pig or a steer, because of the thick covering 
of wool, which may, in the hands of the expert 
shepherd, be made to disguise the real form 




F^G. 152. Typical fat sheep: Lincoln wether, 
champion in long wool class. (Photograph 
furnisned by The American Sheep Breeder.) 



18 



262 



THE JUDGING 




LIVE STOCK 



Fig. 153. Judging mutton sheep: Depth of chest 



shears — the greater the possibility of 
deception ; consequently, the more 
urgent the need of a careful and intel- 
ligent examination. 

The majority of sheep raisers are 
interested, at one time or another, iu 
the selection of a ram of some one of 
the mutton breeds ; hence, it is thought 
that a discussion of this subject in 
connection with the illustrations will 
be found of most widespread interest. 
Mutton rams are so generally used on 
grade ewes for the production of grade 
lambs for winter fattening purposes 
that a description of the points of a 
ram suitable for such purpose is given. 

Considering the use to which the ram is 
to be put it can readily be seen that relatively 
more importance should be attached to the 
mutton points of the sheep than to the so- 



of the sheep. It is important, 
therefore, to follow a definite 
method of examination in order 
to determine their value. 

The figures^ accompanying 
this discussion will be found 
suggestive, and if the method 
illusti'ated is persistently fol- 
lowed, what appears to the 
novice an almost impossible 
task, will be found, in a re- 
markably short time to be rea- 
sonably simple. The better a 
sheep appears to be — that is, 
the smoother he has been made, 
either with feed or with the 




Fig. 154. Judging mutton sheep: 

heart. (Mumford.) 



Thickness through the 



1 For permission to use in this new connection the 
author's photographs reproduced in Figs. 153-161, the 



courtesy of Prof. L. R Taft, Inspector of the Michigan 
State Board of Agriculture, is aclcnowledged. 



MUTTON FORM VS. J3KEED-TYPE 



263 



called " fancy " points of breed type. On the other hand, were a ram to be selected to head a 
high-class, pure-bred flock, care should be taken to secure characteristic breeding points. It sim- 
plifies the discussion materially, however, to confine ourselves to mutton points. The mutton 
type should be possessed to a high degree by 
every individual of every breed of mutton 
sheep. It may be said to be almost the only 
breed-type characteristic that is held in com- 
mon by all mutton breeds. True, more per- 
fect development of the leg of mutton is 
expected in the Southdown than would be 
looked for in the Oxford, but a glaring defect 
in the leg of mutton should be a disqualifica- 
tion from the standpoint of mutton produc- 
tion, no matter what breed of mutton sheep 
is involved. It can be seen how even the 
breeder of pure Oxfords might pass over a 
deficient leg of mutton on a sheep possessed 
of excellent quality, breed- type, and finish. 
It would not be necessary for the farmer in 
quest of a good mutton ram to put up with a 
poorly developed ram, i. e., in so far as mut- 
ton points are concerned. 

Every breeder recognizes the fact 
that a pure-bred ram possessing an 
almost ideal mutton form may have to 
be sold at a low figure if lacking in 
breed-type points, while another pos- 
sessing better breed-type, but no better mutton form than the former — perhaps 
not so good — will bring a price relatively much higher. 

Just here is the lamb raiser's opportunity ; he wants, first of all, a ram possessing as nearly as 
possible an ideal mutton form, with sufficient breeding to give a reasonable guaranty that he will 
transmit his characteristics to his offspring. Such a ram can often be purchased at half the price 
that the good breeder would be required to pay for a ram combining good breeding, good breed- 
type, and ideal mutton form. It is not an easy task to select a ram simply for mutton points. 
A ram to do the most good must be in good breeding condition, neither too fat nor yet too lean. 

The novice in judging sheep is often deceived in purchasing an overfat sheep because it 
looks good. While a sheep too thin in condition is a puzzle alike to the novice and experienced 
judge, a sheep in a condition bordering on either extreme is an unprofitable sheep to the purchaser. 

Systematic Examination — The safest plan to follow in selecting a ram 
is to adopt a systematic method of examination. Thus one will generally avoid 




Fig. 155. Judging mutton sheep: Flesh-covering of 
back and loin. (Mumford.) 



264 



THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 




Fig. 156. Judging mutton sheep : Width of loin. (Mumford.) 

physiognomy can judge much of 
the characteristics of a man or 
woman by a good look at the face. 
So, much can be seen in the head 
and face of a sheep to indicate its 
masculinity The ram with a long 
narrow head is seldom a prepotent 
or satisfactory sire. Passing from 
the head back to the neck we should 
look for a short, thick neck, one that 
gradually thickens toward the body, 
joining the shoulder smoothly and 
evenly. There should be no drop 
just in front of the top of the shoul 
ders, constituting what is known as 
a " ewe neck." 

Depth of Chest — Fig. 153 
shows the method of judging of the 
depth of chest by placing one hand 



overlooking either the strong or defi- 
cient points of tlie aniuuil. It goes 
without saying tliat one should know 
how a properly developed sheep should 
look and handle. It is not enough to 
make an examinatioti witli the eyes. It 
is safe to say that less can be told of the 
real characteristics of a sheep by gen- 
eral appearance than of any other farm 
animal. More dependence must be 
placed upon the use of the hands. Not 
all judges agree as to the best method 
of examining a sheep. Some begin 
with an examination of the most im- 
portant points, while otliers think it 
best to begin at the head, taking the 
points in passing to the rear of the 
sheep. The latter is the safer method. 
Head and Face— Careful students of 




Fig. 157. Judging mutton sheep: Length of hind quarter. (Mumford.) 



SYSTEMATIC EXAMINATION OF SHEEP 



265 




Fig. 158. Judging mutton sheep: Fulness of rump. (Mumford.) 



on top of shoulders aud the other 

l)etwcen the front legs of the sheep, 

noting also the width between the 

fcjrelegs, which should be relatively 

great. Examine at this time also the 

fulness of the brisket, as well as the 

covering of the point of the shoul- 
der and the shoulder blade. It is 

well, too, to press firmly on top of 

the shoulders to determine whether 

the shoulders are well overlaid. 
Tliicknes.s Tlirougli the 

Heart — Fig. 154 shows the method 

of getting an idea of thickness 

through the heart, which should 

always be great, since it indicates 

a good, strong constitution and ful- 
ness of the heart girth. The animal 

should not, as we say, be "tucked 

up in the girth." 

Flesh-covering- of Back aud Loin — By placing the hands a little higher and nearer 

the middle of the back, the spring of the ribs should be noted. Fig. 155 shows the proper way 

to handle the back and loin to determine the covering of flesh. The hand should be open and 

laid flat on the back, then on loin ; 
the hand should be pressed firmly 
and moved slightly back and forth, 
pressing firmly all the time. If the 
back and loin is not well covered, the 
spine will be more or less prominent. 
Width of Loin — Fig. 156 
shows the proper method of judging 
the width of the loin. At the same 
time the thickness of the loin can 
also be noted, together with the dis- 
tance between point of hips and the 
first rib. This distance should be 
relatively short. Where the width 
of the loin is not too great one hand 
may be used in such a manner as to 
span the loin. Where it is desirable 
to compare the width of the loin of 
two sheep this method can often be 
used to good advantage. 




'"^- 



FiG. 159. Judging mutton sheep: "Leg of mutton." (Mumford.) 



266 



THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 




'^ '' ':?M 




Fig. 160. Judging imitt>iii sheep: Fleece. (Mumford.) 



such an examination is of prac- 
tical utility. For example, by 
a careful view of the sheep as 
a whole, at SDme little distance, 
we judge of carriage and style. 
The general outlines, providing 
the sheep has not been blocked 
by the professional trimmer, 
should indicate whether the top 
and bottom lines are straight 
and parallel, whether the body 
is deep, the flanks full, and the 
legs short. At such a distance 
the sheep should present a low, 
massive, blocky appearance, 
the short legs standing well 



Length of Hind Quarter— Fig. 157 

shows the method of determining the length 
of the hind quarter. It should be of good 
length and carried as level as possible. 

Fulness of Kump — Fig. 158 shows 
one way of noting the fulness or deficiency 
of the rump. By this method one should be 
able to judge whether a sheep carries its width 
well back. In all of these examinations it is 
well to bear in mind that it is the form of the 
carcass of the sheep, regardless of the cover- 
ing of wool, for which we should look. To 
do this the hand, or fingers, as occasion may 
require, must be firmly laid on the sheep. 

The "Leg of Mutton"— Fig. 159 
shows manner of examining the "leg of mut- 
ton." The fleshing of thigh and the filling of 
the twist should be taken into consideration 
at this point. 

While the danger with the beginner 
in judging sheep is to judge too much 
by the general appearance of a sheep, 




Fig. Kjl. Judging mutton sheep: Fleece. (Mumford.) 



WOOL OR MUTTON, OR BOTH? 267 

apart and well to the corners of the body. The legs should be reasonably straight 
as viewed from the side, front, and rear, which indicates strength and feeding type. 

A sheep with rather heavy bone is to be preferred to one with a tendency to 
be too fine boned. As a rule, too fine-boned sheep lack vigor and growth, being 
delicate and undersized. 

The fleece of a mutton sheep is practically the last point to be looked to, but it is a point 
that has been too much neglected. To go into a discussion of the proper examination of the 
fleece would require a treatise of too great length. Perhaps it will l)e sufficient to say that the 
wool should be opened as shown in Fig. 160. Such an examination should give a general idea of 
the quality, length of staple, and density of wool. 

The best wool on the sheep will be foimd at the point indicated, while the fleece should be 
opened as indicated in Fig. 161, on the thigh, to see if the quality, density, and length of staple is 
fairly uniform over the whole body. The wool on the lower thigh is often coarse, open, and 
shaggy — not a good sign. 

In conclusion, it may be said that one never learns all there is to be learned about 
judging sheep. By one who is really anxious to learn, one with a love for sheep 
and a keen sense of discernment, much can be learned in a short time. The first 
step is to become familiar with a correct method ; the next, to know that the most 
important points of the mutton sheep are the leg of mutton, the loin, and the back. 
With a well-developed loin, back, and thigh, couple a low, massive form on short, 
strong legs, fronted with a masculine head, and you have a ram that is safe to 
depend upon as a producer of good feeding lambs. 

V. THE PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL' 
WOOL OR MUTTON, OR BOTH? 

It is very doubtful whether the time will ever come when the keeping of sheep 
for the production of wool alone can be made profitable in many localities in the 
United States, 

Wool growing upon such a basis must, in the future, be confined to localities 
remote from the great meat consuming centers, where farmers are unprovided with 
rapid transportation to these centers, or where the cost of transportation of mutton 
would be so high as to render the carcass of little or no value. 

A moment's consideration would suggest that wool growing under such con- 
ditions could only be made profitable upon cheap lands, where the herding of large 
fiocks would be possible and where the climate and other conditions would be favor- 
able to the development of sheep and the healthy growth of the wool fiber. 

1 From Bulletin 178 of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, by the author. 



268 PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL 

We can conceive how present conditions might be so changed as to render sheep 
husbandry profitable, if the wool product only were taken into account. It is not 
probable, however, that we shall ever see a repetition of conditions which existed 
earlier in this century. It is not probable that the price of the finer grades of wool 
will go so high that the breeder, even of that class of sheep, can afford to entirely 
overlook the ultimate value of the carcass for the block. 

It is not difficult to see that the ranchman who can run large flocks of sheep in 
bands, and who has at his command an almost unlimited grazing ground, can pro- 
duce wool more economically than the general farmer who keeps a flock and looks 
upon it simply as an incidental contributor to his income. 

The owners of small flocks, then, soonest feel the effects of depression and are 
most apt quickly to dispose of their flocks after one or two unprofitable years. Vie 
believe future conditions will bear us out in the statement that there will be very 
few years when a man who has a flock of sheep of good quality, who pursues care- 
ful and painstaking methods in handling them, will fail to secure a net profit. 

There is a promising outlook for the American farmer who economically pro- 
duces wool and mutton. I doubt if we shall again see the time when tiie fiock 
master can secure a net profit from his fiock unless he makes a thorough study of 
the industry, knows what he is trying to do, how he is to accomplish his ends, and 
is willing to settle upon a policy in breeding and rigidly adhere to it. 

May I venture to suggest here that one of the greatest sources of loss to the 
American farmer has been his vacillating from one line of breeding to another, 
from one rotation of crops to another, and from one system of farming to another ? 
Use all of the means at hand to decide the wisest line of sheep husbandry to pursue 
under your conditions, and then do not deviate from it without the best of reasons. 
Remember that a constant, persistent, and settled policy is best. 

In connection with this subject the question naturally arises : Can sheep hus- 
bandry be made profitable by disregarding entirely the wool product? In some few 
favored localities such a course of sheep husbandry maybe pursued with profit, but 
under ordinary conditions the wool product contributes materially to the net income 
from the flock. In some instances breeders of mutton sheep have I'ealized as much 
for their wool as the men who have been keeping sheep primarily for the wool which 
they produce. In making such a claim it should not be forgotten that the Ameri- 
can markets in the past have not been glutted with a large supply of the medium 
and coarse grades of wool, while the scarcity of fine wools, owing to the common 
stock of the country being largely Merino grades, has not been apparent until quite 



PKESENT AND FUTURE OF THE INDUSTRY 269 

recently, although a few of the breeders of Merino sheep have persistently proph- 
esied that former conditions would return, and that the grading up of flocks for 
the production of the finer grades of wool would again profitably engage the atten- 
tion of American sheep men. 

Fashion in the manufacture of woolen fabrics, which has always been a potent 
factor in the price of different grades of wool, has seemed to encourage the growth 
of medium and coarse avooIs. While the future of the wool industry will be settled 
by conditions almost entirely beyond the control of the growers of this country, 
still everything points to a brighter prospect for the wool grower than for several 
years past, and esisecially for the producer of fine delaine wools. 

WORLD'S WOOL PRODUCTION 

The number of sheep in the world in 1894, according to S. N. D. North, was 
571,163,062, and the amount of wool produced was 2,693,986,773 pounds, showing 
the average weight of fleece per head to be 4.7 pounds. 

Wool Product of the United States — From the same authority 
we learn that in the United States, during the same year, there were 45,084,017 
sheep, producing 325,210,712 pounds of wool. By this we see the United States 
produces about one-eighth of the world's suj^ply of wool. The average weight of 
fleece in the United States is 7.21 pounds; more than two pounds per head above 
the world's average. 

For the last twenty years the number of sheep in the United States has varied 
from approximately 40,000,000 to 50,000,000; the latter figure was exceeded in 
1884, while in 1894 the number was estimated at 45,048,017. 

Current prices for wool and mutton, combined with other conditions, which have 
made the production of one or the other of these products unprofitable, have caused 
this variation in the number of sheep kept, and a similar variation in the amount 
of the mutton and wool produced. It has not been due to an overproduction of 
wool, for statistics show that never has home-grown wool excelled, or even equaled, 
the consumption of wool in the United States. 

Outlook for the Future — No one can consistently say that we ought not 
to produce at home every pound of wool consumed within our borders. The natural 
adaptability of many parts of the country for sheep-raising suggests that we should, 
in every way possible, so adjust our farming operations, and our commercial and 
economic conditions, that the farms in the United States can produce at least all of 
the wool needed for home consumption, and that at a fair profit. 



270 PRODUCTION AND MAEKETING OF WOOL 

From statistics furnished in the Wool Book for 1895, issued by the National Association of 
Wool Manufacturers, we learn that 453,048,456 pounds of wool were consumed in the United 
States during the year 1894. The wool produced in the United States during the previous year, 
which would naturally contribute to such consumption, amounted to 348,538,138 pounds. This 
shows that we produce little more than three fourths of the wool consumed. Since it is a well- 
known fact that the per capita consumption of the wool in the United States has steadily increased 
from 4.49 pounds in 1840 to 9.07 pounds in 1890, it is clear that wool growers have a prosperous 
future before them, if only they will give more careful attention to growing, preparing for 
market, and to developing markets for their home-grown products. 

An advance in prices of wools tends to stimulate the industry. More wool is 
grown, but the manufacturer is obliged to pay higher prices for the raw material. 
It is difficult for clothiers to get a correspondingly high price for manufactured 
goods, so that the usual result is that manufacturers substitute, where possible, part 
cotton. Tlie consumer gets his clothing just as cheaji, but does not get all-wool 
goods. Sheep growers in the United States have been urged to grow all the wool 
consumed in the United States. We would go still farther and call attention to 
the vast undeveloped markets for manufactured products. When we remember 
that of the inhabitants of the world there are 350,000,000 who do not wear clothes, 
and 100,000 000 more who wear only about one-half as many as they should, we 
can see great opportunities ahead in the way of markets for manufactured goods. 
Perhaps woolen goods would not in all cases be suitable ; — then let garments manu- 
factured from cotton and other fibers be used, leaving a clearer field for the wool 
producer who must now compete in a measure with producers of vegetable fibers 
grown at a minimum of cost. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE FLOCK AND ITS RELATION TO 
CONDITION AND VALUE OF WOOL 

Continuous Care Requisite — The sooner we, as wool growers, fully 
appreciate the diiference in value to the manufacturer between wools well grown 
and those poorly grown, the sooner will all our wools command a better price. 

We must banish forever the idea that condition, quantity, quality, and length 
of staple are all of the important factors affecting its value. But we must give 
more attention to the growing of wool fibers of great strength. Strength of the 
wool fiber depends, to a considerable extent, upon the quality of wool or the size 
of the fibers. The important point, however, in this connection, and the point 
which we wish to emphasize, is that there is a great difference in the relative strength 
of fibers of the same quality or grade of wool. When a difference of this kind exists 
it is largely due to the way it has been grown. 



HOW GOOD FLOCK MANAGEMENT PAYS 271 

The strongest fiber of wool is produced on sheep when the animal has been 
supplied with an abundance of nourishing food throughout the year. 

If, on the contrary, a sheep is poorly nourished, the strength of the wool fiber 
will sooner or later be seriously affected. If proper care is not continuous through- 
out the year and the fleck is neglected during any period, then a break in the fiber 
occurs, which greatly weakens the fiber at that particular point. The strength of 
the weakest place in the fiber decides the strength of the whole fiber. 

So far as the writer has been able to discover there is no special ration, which, if fed to sheep, 
will produce wool of great strength, nor can it be said that any special ration is to be recommended 
to produce a large quantity of wool. It has often been observed that sheep and lambs which 
have been on full feed for long periods shear heavy fleeces of wool. This would indicate that any 
ration calculated to keep the sheep in a thrifty condition would be a suitable one for growing 
large quantities of wool. 

From what has been said, the wool grower will understand that it is highly 
desirable to provide the sheep proper nourishment throughout the year, permitting 
no periods of neglect to intervene to destroy the strength of the fibers of the fleece. 
Liberal and judicious feeding does not change the quality of the wool, but it does 
affect the strength and the quantity of the wool produced by a given sheep. The 
weight of wool produced is affected both by increase in the length of fiber and by 
increase in the amount of yolk, or natural oil, in the fleece. 

Condition of Wool refers to the cleanliness of the fleece — the absence of 
all foreign substances, such as sand, burs, chaff, and all other substances looked 
upon by the wool manufacturer as litter. 

It is not because these naturally light substances affect the weight of the fleece to 
any considerable extent that wool manufacturers so strenuously object to their pres- 
ence in the fleece, but that they must be removed from the fleece before it is ready for 
manufacturing purposes. The process of separating these substances from the fleece 
is not only very tedious, but very expensive, and, as a rule, it can not be done without 
more or less injury to the wool fiber. Knowing the above facts we can easily see 
how condition affects the price of wool, since it directly affects its value. 

It is not a difficult matter for the wool grower to so manage his flocks that the wool produced 
by them will be practically free from all litter. He must provide racks for the sheep which will 
permit them to eat without getting their necks full of chaff, seeds, and dust. (It is, of course, 
unnecessary to mention the old straw stack.) He must keep his farm free from bur-bearing 
weeds ; his flock will keep most other weeds in check. If we needed any proof that the farmers 
of our country are negligent about allowing weeds to grow and seed in abundance on their farms, 
we might visit some large wool-scouring or woolen mill, and carefully examine the refuse or waste 
from the mills : We would have abundant proof in the millions of weed seeds found. At some 



272 



PEODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL 



mills where such refuse is so dumped that seeds can germinate and grow, we find a large number 
of species and varieties of weeds. 

Breeds and their Fleeces — That we might get more definite information 
concerning the wool produced by the various breeds of slieep, more or less common 
in the United States, we tried to secure, for each of the breeds, a ewe's and a ram's 
fleece, which should be average typical fleeces of the breed. In most cases we were 
successful in securing what we desired, but in other instances we were not fully 
satisfied that the fleeces submitted were typical of the breed. 

In examining the tabulated facts below, we make the request that the reader 
should not consider the figures there exhibited as settling the relative merits of the 
various breeds as wool producers. Certain general conclusions may be drawn from 
the table, but it must be obvious to every thoughtful reader that it would be very 
nearly impossible to secure two fleeces which would in every way be representative 
of the various breeds. 

Table Showing Weight op Fleece, Per Cent op Shrink, Commercial Grade, and 
Price per Pound of Fleeces from Different Breeds of Sheep 



Breed 



American Merino 

American Merino 

National Delaine Merino 

Improved Black Top Merino 
American Rambouillet 



American Rambouillet. 

Cross Bred i 

Southdown 

Southdown 

Southdown 



Shropshire ... 

Suffolk 

Hampshire . . . 
Oxford Down . 
Oxford Down. 



Leicester . 
Cotswold . 
Cotswold . 
Lincoln... 
Lincoln... 
Tunis 



Dorset Horn. 
Dorset Horn . 
Dorset Horn. 
Dorset Horn. 

Cheviot 

Cross Bred 2 . 



m 



Ewe 
Ram 
Ewe 
Ram 

Ewe 

Ram 
Ewe 
Ram 
Ewe 

Ewe 

Ewe 
Ram 

Ewe 
Ewe 
Ewe 

Ram 
Ram 
Ewe 
Ram 
Ewe 
Ewe 



Ewe 
Ram 
Ewe 
Ram *13 
Ewe 2 
Ewe 1 



5gS 



LBS. OZ 

17 12 

26 



121/2 
10 
11% 
1% 

15 
1 

51/2 
1 
12 

12 

i5y2 

6 
9 
2 

81/2 
3 

31/2 
8% 
11 

123/4 



121/2 

21/2 
15 
11/2 
2 
4 



; 1) !_ s 



141/2 
101/2 

1 
11 

9% 

9V3 
51/2 
4 

8I/2 
111/2 

9 

41/2 
131/2 

i3y2 
5% 

13 
12 
43A 



1 

41/2 
101/2 
141/2 
10 

4 






72.36 
75.15 
57.79 
69.64 
55.42 

44.19 
60 73 
55 75 
50. 00 
39.11 

48 25 
56.95 
43 67 
37. 56 
41.53 

.33 33 
35.39 
36 57 
33.77 
30 85 
43 75 

40 09 
47 51 
47.90 
46.04 
27.39 

41 38 



Commercial 
Grade 



X Clothing . . 
XX Clothing. 
Fine Delaine. 
Fine Delaine. 
X Clothing . . 

Fine Delaine . 
1/2 Clothing. . 
% Combing . 
% Combing . 
% Combing . 



14 Combing 

Low % Combing. 

% Combmg 

Braid Combing. . 
i/i Combing 



Low 1/4 Blood 

Coarse Combing, 
Braid Combing. . 
Braid Combing.. 
Braid Combing. . 
% Combing 



% Combing 
i/i Combing 
% Combing 
1/4 Combing 
1.4 Combing 
% Combing 



=? p ? ° i: 

O 3 t. O) o 



s «3 



14 
.13 
.21V 
.20 ■ 
20 

.22 
.19 
.22 
.23 
23 

.22 
.23 
.23 

.20 
.19 

19 

.19 
.19 
.20 
.20 

221/2 

.221/2 
.22 
.22 
.22 

■22y2 
■2iy2 



I 50 
.52 
.51 
.663/4 

•44y2 
391/4 

■ 483/4 
.50 
46 
.373/4 

.42% 
.531/2 
.41 
.321/4 



.281/4 
.291/4 

.3oy4 
.3oy4 

.29 

.39y4 

.37 

.421/4 

.421/4 

.403/4 

.31 

.34 



1 Hampshire and Cotswold. 2 Rambouillet and American Merino. 3 Prices quoted Aug. 31, 1899. * Months old. 



GEADING OF WOOLS 273 

That there might be absolute fairness in securing representative fleeces of each breed, the 
writer appealed to the secretaries of the various sheep breeders' and registry associations to aid in 
securing the fleeces. In most instances much valuable assistance was rendered. 

The weight of all fleeces is computed upon the basis of 365 days' growth. 

Coiiiiiiercial Grade — For the benefit of those who may not understand 
fully what is meant by the terms used in the column headed "Commercial Grade," 
a few brief explanations are made: 

General Grades — All domestic wools may be classified according to their quality, 
strength, and length of staple as (a) clothing or carding wools; (b) combing wools; (c) Delaine 
wools. 

(a) Clothing Wools are short wools and incidentally of relatively fine quality. In a general 
way all wools less than 2i inches in length are clothing or cai-ding wools. 

(b) Combing Wools are both long in staple and strong. Most of the coarser long wools are 
graded as combing wools. However, when a wool is long enough for combing and has the neces- 
sary size of fiber it may still be disqualified as a combing wool if it has been poorly grown. 
Breaks in the fiber caused by insufficient nourishment destroy the value of wools for combing 
purposes. 

(c) Delaine Wools are fine wools clipped from all varieties of Merinos or high grade 
Merinos which grow wool of long, strong staple. We might say that Delaine wools are combing 
fine wools. 

Subdivision of Grades — Each one of the three classes of wools above mentioned is subdi- 
vided according to quality or size of fiber, as follows: 

Picklock 

,xf fl^^'-'^ fFine 

(a) Clothing wools... ^ X (b) Combing wools., i g^oarse or common ^"^ Delaine wools.. ^ Medium 

I '^°l'°'H^^°?'^ Braid ^ '-°"' 

I No. 2, or ^ ^ 

(^ No. 3, or 14 

Picklock is a grade that is rarely found in the markets at the present time. Formerly a large 
quantity of this wool reached our markets. The wool from pure Saxony Merino sheep usually 
grades Picklock. XXX also is hard to find. When the Saxony Merino was crossed with the com- 
mon American or Spanish Merino, the cross-bred resulting usually produced wool grading XXX. 

XX is considered the standard for a pure-bred Merino. 

Some three-quarter blood Merino, nearly all of the high-grade Merino, and much of the coarser 
pure-blood Merino wool, grades as X. 

The terms i, f , and i blood do not necessarily mean that the wools were grown on sheep pos- 
sessing just that fraction of Merino blood. Many sheep containing no Merino blood grow wool 
grading f and i blood. No. 1 or i blood is the next coarser grade than X. No. 3 is coarser than 
No. 1, and so on. 

Coarse and Braid wools are invariably combing wools, and are the grades most frequently 
produced by Lincolns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds, which have fleeces coarse and long in staple, but 
bright and lustrous. 



274 FEODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL 

Fine Delaine is the grade next coarser than the Braid Combing, while Low Delaine is long 
enough to be Combing, but a grade finer than the finest Combing wools, namely, f blood. 

Special Grades — Other grades of wool which are occasionally quoted in the markets are 
(a) felting wools and (b) noils. 

Upon request, Mr. Charles F. Avery of Boston, has defined felting wools and noils as follows . 

(a) "Felting "Wools are wools which ai"e adapted for felting purposes, usually of short staple, 
and having properties which cause them to felt quickly. We presume that j'ou understand that 
felting is a process whereby the fibers are interlocked in such a way that a solid fabric is produced 
without the intermediate processes of spinning and weaving." 

(b) Noils — "In the process of combing wool the fibers are drawn between fine needles and 
the dead and tender wools are broken off in the process and produce what are called noils, or what 
might be called combing waste. The long and healthy fibers are carried along through the comb- 
ing process and are formed into what are called worsted tops." 

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 

Washing sheep is not nearly so prevalent as formerly. Most manufacturers 
agree that wool which has been washed in the country is not so desirable as that 
which has been sent to market unwashed. It is an unsatisfactory process at best, 
and many times the country washing makes scouring at the mills more difficult. 

Injury to the Wool — After a careful investigation of the subject we are- 
convinced that, in the long run, it is more profitable to dispense with washing 
altogether. 

We have secured better results by shearing our sheep during the first half of 
April than later in the season. This, of course, makes it impossible to wash sheep 
before shearing. We are satisfied that we can get not only a heavier average fleece, 
but also a wool of better strength from the same flock by shearing during the first 
half of April than by shearing in May or June. 

If reasonable care is taken to keep the wool free from dirt and litter while on 
the sheep's back, then there is little to be gained by washing. By an examination 
of the wool market quotations a class of unmerchantable wools will be noted. This 
class includes wools poorly washed. 

Injury to the Sheep — The subject of washing should not be dismissed 
without saying that if the author could believe the washing process an advantage 
to grower and consumer alike, he woitld still think the custom of doubtful utility 
on account of injury to the sheep. Sheep are often roughly handled, and not 
infrequently more injury is done to the sheep than good to the fleece. The sheep 
will suffer no inconvenience from early shearing, except for the first few days, if 
they are properly sheltered and protected from the cold, and more especially from 



WASHING, SHEARING, AND PACKING 275 

storms. The wool makes a rapid growth during the cool months of spring, and the 
sheep are not sweltering under a thick blanket of wool. In the latter case the sheep 
are not only uncomfortable, but the wool makes little if any growth. 

For several years, in a majority of instances, the Eastern wool markets have 
been better in April than in June. This would give the grower who makes a 
practice of early spring shearing a slight advantage as to markets. 

Shearing — The best job of shearing is that which secures the largest amount 
of wool in the best condition for market without injury to tlie sheep. It is highly 
desirable that the sheep bB closely shorn and that there should be no second cuts. 
The fleece should be kept intact, not torn apart, and the skin of the sheep should 
not be wounded. 

Nearly all of the sheep east of the Mississippi River are shorn by hand, while 
many in, the West and on the ranges are shorn with machines. 

MARKETING WOOL 

Unlike most other farm products, wool can not be consumed on the farm. It is 
true that in the days of our grandmothers and the spinning wheel, a large part of 
the then small wool product of the United States was manufactured and used upon 
the farm. Now we neither spin the wool upon the farm, nor is it possible for us, 
when low prices prevail, to use up the surj)lus by feeding to our farm animals, thus 
converting it into meat products, as is possible with grains and hay produced upon 
the farm. 

The question of wool markets and the preparation of wool for the market is, 
therefore, one of vital importance to the wool grower. Dealers in and manufac- 
turers of wool make the following objections to the majority of wool marketed in 
the United States : (a) Either by neglect or intent, tags and litter are often incor- 
porated in the fleeces, (b) Too much twine of an inferior grade is used, (c) The 
use of the wool box results in packing fleeces into a square bundle that is too 
compact. Let us consider these objections. 

(a) Tags — If tags are understood to refer to bunches or locks of manure which 
have accumulated on small bits of wool about the thighs and hocks, then by all 
means they should be left out of the fleece, and either sold separately as tags, for 
what they will bring, or used as manure. We have known breeders of flne wool 
sheep who have thoroughly washed and dried the tags and then put a handful or 
so in each fleece. There is no great objection to this, providing the tags are well 
washed and thoroughly dry. It would be more businesslike, however, to sell the 



276 PKODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL 

washed tags separately, as the wool will never be so valuable as the rest of the fleece. 
It is perfectly legitimate to tie up all the wool that grows on the sheep in the fleece, 
provided that the wool is free from all foreign substances which would add to the 
natural weight of the fleece. 

It is worth while to offer here one reason why a majority of wool growers incorporate tags and 
litter in the fleeces which they sell. There are two distinct classes of growers who put tags into 
the fleece. The first class includes growers who put tags into the fleece either through absolute 
carelessness or with the evident intent of deceiving the buyer. This class of men is small and 
undeserving of consideration. The second class includes growers who are progressive and busi- 
nesslike. This statement sounds inconsistent, but it is not. These men have cut out tags and 
litter very carefully, it may be, for two or three years ; they have observed that, as a rule, they get 
no more for their wool than the men who put tags and all into their fleeces. This suggests that 
buyers are not careful enough in recognizing painstaking methods on the part of progressive 
growers. Buyers know the extra value of clean wool. Let them encourage the honest, pains- 
taking growers in a substantial manner by giving more per pound for their wool, a thing which 
they can well afford to do. Let them at the same time, discriminate against wool carelessly tied, 
or that which contains chaff, burs, and other litter. Until buyers rigidly adhere to that policy, but 
little improvement can be expected among wool growers. 

(b) Twine — Besides weight, there is still another reason why buyers object to 
coarse twine. The coarse, hard fibers of the twine are apt to work in among the 
wool fibers. Manufacturers find it difficult to separate these foreign fibers from 
the wool, and unless they are removed they work injury to goods manufactured 
from such wool. We believe the time has come when wool growers should adopt a 
small twine of better quality. 

A small linen twine used by nearly all wool growers in Australia is to be recommended in 
everyway. While such twine costs about 25 cents per pound, it runs nearly 2,700 feet to the 
pound. A pound of linen twine should, therefore, tie 270 fleeces, allowing 10 feet to each fleece, 
or 135 fleeces, allowing 20 feet to each fleece. This linen twine is soft, and should the fibers 
become mixed with the wool no material injury would be done. 

No. 18 hemp twine is also to be recommended. There are about 1,600 feet of this twine to the 
pound and it can be purchased for about 10 cents per pound. The only objection that can be 
raised to the use of a small, fine twine for tying wool is that it is hard on the wool packers' hands. 

(c) Wool Boxes — The majority of wool boxes which tie the fleeces in a 
square bundle are too small. The most of them were made for fleeces from Merino 
sheep, and new ones have not been made for handling more bulky, coarse wool ; 
consequently the fleeces are packed too snugly together. This gives them a heavy, 
soggy appearance, whereas they should present a light, loose, and bulky appearance. 

The method of tying wool in Canada is quite satisfactory. The fleece is spread out on a clean 
shearing floor with the outer ends of the wool up. The skirts of the fleece are folded in toward 



TEN POINTS FOR WOOL GROWERS 277 

the center, only a trifle at each end, but considerable on the sides, so that the sides lap well ; then 
the fleece is rolled from end to end, making a short, cylindrical roll of wool. A small hemp twine 
is then run snugly around the roll a little distance from each end. 

Ten Points for Wool Growers — In conclusion, the following items 
should receive careful consideration : 

1. The manufacturer buys wool on the basis of its true value for manufacturing 
purposes. The grower, the local dealer, the commission man, and the scourer 
should each make an honest effort to satisfy his reasonable demands. 

2. Breed and feed affect the value of wool from the numufacturers' standpoint. 
Indiscriminate crossing is unprofitable. 

3. A small linen, or flax or hemp twine is best for tying wool. 

4. Coarse, heavy paint- marks should be avoided in marking sheep. 

5. More and better wool can be secured by early shearing. 

6. Loose, bulky fleeces sell best in the market. 

7. Avoid lime and sulphur as a sheep dip. 

8. Every pound of wool consumed in the United States can be profitably grown 
here. 

9. It is very doubtful, indeed, if the American wool grower can ever afford to 
ignore the ultimate value of the carcass producing the fleece. 

10. Mutton-growing with wool as an incidental product will continue to be a 
profitable industry. 

VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR INTERPRETING CATTLE 
MARKET QUOTATIONS 

1. Learn to distinguish between a market class and a market grade. Speaking 
generally, the market classes of beef cattle are heef, hutcher-stocJc, cotters and 
canners, and stockers and feeders. The grades are prime, choice, good, medium, 
common, and inferior. 

2. The names of the various classes indicate the uses to which cattle in those 
classes are put. The grades refer to quality, condition, and conformation, the 
relative importance of which factors, so far as they influence market values, is 
indicated by the order in which they have been enumerated, quality being of 
greatest importance, condition next, and conformation of least importance. 

3. Weight has relatively but small influence in determining the grade and price 
of fat cattle. Quality and condition largely govern both. 

19 



278 INTERPRETING CATTLE MARKET QUOTATIONS 

4. As a basis for comparison and study of other grades, become thoroughly 
familiar with the characteristics of prime steers and choice feeders ; these are the 
standard grades of fat cattle and feeders. Fluctuations in the market affect these 
grades less than others. 

5. It is, therefore, more difficult to .determine an approximately correct valua- 
tion for a lot of low-grade cattle than for cattle of higher grades. 

G. Where practicable, follow your consignments to the market ; find out the 
desirable and undesirable characteristics of your cattle from the standpoint of 
the market. 

7. Observe other cattle on the market and compare their quality, condition, 
conformation, and the prices paid for them, with the quality, condition, conforma- 
tion, and price of your own cattle, with which you are more familiar, 

8. Compare price for which various lots of cattle have been sold with market 
quotations and note what grade of cattle is bringing similar prices. 

9. The terms export, sliipinng, and dressed heef steers are no longer" significant 
of any particular grade of cattle. Several different grades and even different 
classes are exported, shipped, and used for dressed beef. 

10. The most desirable steer for export, for shipping, and for the best grade of 
dressed beef either for domestic or foreign trade is the same in each instance. 

11. The best grade of any class of cattle must be practically above criticism. 

12. When cattle grade the best of their class they command a premium on the 
market. Such cattle usually sell at strong prices and for their full value. 

13. Cattle of the lower grades, necessarily deficient in certain particulars, sell 
at a discount which in many instances is greater than their inferiority demands. 

14. Thus it will be seen that the tendency is to spring the market for choice, 
prime, and fancy grades, while the common and medium grades are seldom, if 
ever, sold for more than they are worth; while many times they do not bring their 
full value, owing to a tendency on the part of buyers to magnify defects of minor 
importance. 




^ / ^/^""Lyl^^T^^^^^-y^^^J--^^ 



BOOKS ON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY: THE HOESE 279 

PUBLICATIONS ON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, BEE KEEPING, 

AND FISH CULTURE 

GENERAL PUBLICATIONS ON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

Animal Breeding. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y $1.50 

Breeds, The Study op. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., ^.Y l.oO 

Farm Boy, Letters to the. By H. Wallace. The Macmillan Co., N. Y 1.00 

Feeding Animals. By Elliott W. Stewart. Orange Mdd Co. , '^ . Y 2.00 

Feeding op Animals, The. By W. H. Jordan. The Macmillan Co., NY 1.25 

Feeding of Farm Animals, The. Farmers' Bulletin 22. United States Department of 

Agriculture 

Feeds and Feeding. By W. A. Henry. TF. J^. iZe?ir2/, Madison, Wis 2.00 

Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine. By George W. Curtis. Rural Publishing Co., N. Y. 1.50 

Judging Live Stock. By John A. Craig. John A. Craig, Rice Lake, Wis 1.50 

Reprigeration and Cold Storage. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler. D. Van Nostrand Co., N. Y. 4.50 

Root Crops for Stock. By W. A. Burpee. W. A. Burpee & Co., Philadelphia ... .20 

Stock Breeding. By Mauley Miles. D. Appleton & Co.,'^.Y 1.50 

Winter Care of Horses and Cattle. By T. B. Terry. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . .35 

PUBLICATIONS ON THE HORSE 

Bridle Bits. By J. C. Battersby. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 1.00 

Family Horse, The. By George A. Martin. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1 00 

Horse, How TO Judge A. By F. W, Bach. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 

Horse, Stonehenge on the. By J. H. AValsh. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 

Horse, The. By Youatt and Spooner. Orange Judd Co., N.Y ... 1.00 

Horse, The; How to Buy and Sell. By Peter Howden. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 

Horse Book, American Reformed. By G. H. Dadd. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . . 2.00 

Horse Book, The American Farmer's. By Robert Stewart. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y. . 3.00 

Horse Breeding. By J. H. Sanders. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.50 

Horse Keepers, Hints to. By Henry William Herbert. Orange Judd Co.. 1^. Y. . . 1.50 

Horses and Horse Breeding, American. By Johu Dimon. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 3.50 
Percheron Horse, The, in America and France. By Weld and DuHays. Orange 

Judd Co., N. Y 50 

Saddle Horse, The. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 

Stable Guide, The American Gentleman's. By Robert McClure. Henry T Coates & Co., 

Philadelphia . 1.00 

Trotting Horse, Training The. By Charles Marvin. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y. . . . 3.50 

TuRP, Handbook OP The. By Samuel L. Beardman. Orange Judd Co., "S^.Y. . . . 1.00 
Vicious Horses, How to Handle and Educate. By Oscar R. Gleason. Orange Judd 

Co., N. Y 50 



280 BOOKS ON CATTLE, SHEEP, AND ANGORAS 

PUBLICATIONS ON CATTLE AND DAIRYING 

Beef Production, Some Essentials in. Farmers' Bulletin 71. United States Depart- 
ment of AgrirAilt are 

Beep and Dairy Cattle, Conformation op. Farmers' Bulletin 143. United States 

Department of Agriculture 

Cattle Breeding. By William Warfield. Orange J udd Co., N. Y $2.00 

Cattle Feeding, Manual of. By H. P. Armsby. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. . . . 1 . 75 
Cattle, Market Classes and Grades of. Bulletin 78. Illinois Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, Urbana, 111 

Cheese Making. By John W. Decker. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 1.75 

Cheese Making, A B C in. By J. H. Monrad. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 50 

Cheese Making in Switzerland. By J. H. Monrad. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 50 

Dairy Bacteriology, Outlines of. By H. L. Russell. Orange Judd Co., T^.Y . . . 1.00 

Dairy Calf, The. By L. S. Hardin. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 25 

Dairying, American. By H. B. Gurler. Orajige Judd Co., l^.Y 1.00 

Dairying, The Chemistry of. By Harry Snyder. Chemical Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. 1 . 50 

Dairyman's Manual. By Henry Stewart Orange Judd Co , 1^. Y. . 1.50 

Milch Cows, Guenon on. By Thomas J. Hand. Orange Judd Co. , N. Y 1.00 

Milk and its Derivatives, Practical Treatise on the Examination of. By J. A. 

Wanklyn, D. Van Wostrand Co., '^.Y 1.00 

Milk AND Its Products. By Henry H. Wing. The Macmillan Co. , 'N . Y 1.00 

Milk : Its Nature and Composition. By C. M. Aikman. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. . 1.00 

Pasteurization. By J. H. Monrad. Orange Judd Co. , 'N . Y 50 

Shorthorn Cattle. By A. H. Sanders. Saiiders Publishing Co 3.00 

PUBLICATIONS ON SHEEP AND ANGORA GOATS 

American Merino, The. By Stephen Powers. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.50 

A New Industry. 1 By William Black. Wm. Black, Fort Worth, Texas 3.00 

Angora Goat, Information Concerning the. Bulletin 27, Bureau of Animal Industry. 

United States Department of Agriculture 15 

Angora Goat, The. By S. C. C. Schreiner. Longmans, Oreen & Co., N. Y 3.00 

Angora Goats, American. By George Edward Allen. Orange Judd Co., ^. Y 25 

Mutton, Raising Sheep for. Farmers' Bulletin 96. United States Department of Agri- 
culture 

Sheep, The. By William A. Rush worth. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.50 

Sheep, The Domestic. By Henry Stewart. Atnerican Sheep Breeder Co., Chicago . . 1.50 
Sheep Feeding. Farmers' Bulletin 49. United States Department of Agriculture . . . 

lAngora goat raising. 



BOOKS ON SHEEP, SWINE, BEES, AND FISH 281 

Sheep Industry, History, and Present Condition of the. Special Report, Bureau 

of Auimal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture (1892) $1.40 

Winter Lamb, T [IE. By H. H. Miller, E. Wing, and H. O. Miller 50 

Wool, The Production and Marketing op. Bulletin 178. Michigan Agricultural 

Experiment Station, Agricultural College, Mich 

PUBLICATIONS ON SWINE 

Hog Raising in the South. Farmers' Bulletin 100. United States Department of Agri- 
culture 

Home Pork Making. By A. W. Fulton Orange Jiidd Co., 'N. Y 50 

Pig, The. By Joseph Harris. Orange Judd Co., 1^. Y. 1.00 

Swine Husbandry. By F. D. Coburn. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 1.50 

PUBLICATIONS ON BEES, RABBITS, AND FISH 

Apiary, Manual op the. By A. J. Cook The Macmillan Co., N. Y 1 25 

Bee Culture, A B C OP By A. I. Root. A. I. Root & Co., WeCim-A, 1.20 

Bee Keeping. Farmers' Bulletin 59. United States Department of Agriculture . . . 

Foul Brood, Laws Relative to Bulletin 13, New Series, Division of Entomology. 

United States Dejjartment of Agriculture 05 

Hive and Honey Bee. By L. L. Langstroth. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.25 

Honey Bee, The: A Manuai, op Apiculture. Bulletin 1, New Series, Division of 

Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture 15 

Quimby's New Bee Keeping. By L. C. Root. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 



Belgian Hare Breeding. By J. W. Darrow. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 25 

Rabbit Keeper, Practical. By " Cuniculus." Orange Judd Co., N. Y. .... 1.50 



American Angler's Book. By Thaddeus Norris Henry T. Coates & Co., Philadelphia 5.50 

Carp Culture, A B C op. By Root and Finley A. I. Root <& Co., Medina, 35 

Familiar Fish and How to Catch Them. By E McCarthy. D. Appltton & Co., N. Y. 1.50 
Fish Culture, American. By Thaddeus Norris. Henry T. Coates & Co., Philadelphia 1.75 

Home Fishing and Home Waters. By Seth Green. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 50 

Trout, Domesticated: How to Breed and Grow. By Livingston Stone. Orange Judd 

Co., N. Y 2.50 




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Beef Making 

By L. H. Kerrick, Bloomington, 111. 
President of the American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders'' Association 

THE CORN BELT FARMERS' OPPORTUNITY 

Beef is the imperial flesh food of the race ; it always has been and probably will 
continue to be. Therefore we may expect that the demand for beef, especially 
good beef, will be as constant as that for any other product of the farm. Intelli- 
gent beef production will certainly be rewarded with fairly constant and reasonable 
profits. Where conditions favor it, we strongly advise farmers to convert some 
part of the products of their farms into beef. Beef making is more intimately 
connected with the maintenance of soil fertility than any other branch of animal 
husbandry. Many kinds of forage and roughage and other farm products, which 
it is not practicable to harvest and prepare for market, may be converted iuto beef 
to sell and manure to enrich the soil of farms that have a beef herd. 

When prices of corn and oats and hay are very low — when a great amount of 
these brings a small amount of money, they may be stored in the form of beef 
upon young, growing cattle, with chances gained of marketing in that Avay at a 
higher and profitable price. 

Beef making is a business of absorbing interest. It may be called a higher 
branch of farm study. The care of a herd of beef cattle affords room for tlie 
exercise of faculties only partially engaged in the ordinary routine of planting and 
tilling and harvesting. The boys are sure to become interested in it, and likely 
all the family. 

The world must look to the Corn Belt of the United States for its chief supply 
of fine beef. Over all this vast region all the feeds required to make the best beef 
are produced in great abundance. The climate is well adapted to the production 
of beef. Tlie average farm equipment and improvement with little change or 
addition, can be well suited to raising and feeding cattle for beef. Costly barns 
for close housing of feeding cattle are not now deemed necessary or even desirable. 
Farmers of the Corn Belt have the capital and intelligence needed in the business 
of making high-class beef. They have shipping facilities almost complete. They 
have already a good but not adequate stock of beef cattle which is being rapidly 
increased and improved. 

(283) 



284 L. H. KEREICK ON BEEF MAKING 

There are indications that Corn Belt farmers are being awakened to the peculiar 
opportunities and advantages which they may enjoy in the business of furnisliiug 
the workl its good beef. More are engaging in the business than formerly and still 
more may engage in it with profit. The middle Western States — the corn States, 
should become, and I think will become, noted as the great beef-producing region 
of the worlds- noted not only for the amount, but for the fine quality of the beef 
produced. When Corn Belt farmers are fully aroused to their advantages it will 
not be long till a handsome share of the world's money will be coming their way to 
buy their good beef. 

It is the object of this article to encourage our farmers generally to engage in 
the business of breeding, raising, and feeding cattle for beef, and also to outline, as 
well as we can, the present state of knowledge of cattle feeding. We do not know 
so much yet about beef making that anyone need be discouraged about learning 
what is known about it. However, the less we know, the more important is it that 
prospective cattle feeders know the little that is known. 

THE THREE-YEAK-OLD STEER MUST GO 

Injudicious and wasteful methods of handling and feeding cattle should be 
promptly discarded. Our lands are now high priced, but not nearly so high as we 
believe they will be in the not distant future. In the days of cheap lands and 
cheap feed, half a bushel of com a day to a steer and two or three acres to graze 
him on, and three to three and a half years to prepare him for market, might go for 
cattle business, but not now. With the passing of cheap lands the three-year-old 
steer must go, too. The Corn Belt beef must be made, if made with profit, in 
thirty months and under. 

Prime Beeves at Twenty to Thirty Moutlis — It is entirely prac- 
ticable by simple, natural, economical methods to produce prime beeves of 1,400 to 
1,600 pounds weight at twenty to thirty months old. We have produced them in 
carloads weighing over 1,700 pounds at about thirty-one months old. But this 
implies that they be fed continuously and fed properly from calves to ripe beeves. 
I am confident this will become the general practice with beef producers in the 
Corn Belt. 

High-priced land makes intensified farming necessary. It will also make inten- 
sified beef making, i. e., constant good feeding from calf to beef, equally necessary. 
The greatest weight of beef can be made with a given amount of feed during the 
first twenty or twenty-four months of a steer's life. Why not then let him have the 



FEEDING FOR MARBLED FLESH 285 

feed during that period ? The whole mission of a steer is to convert our feed into 
beef. Why not keep him busy every day at his proper work ? If we let him go a 
month or a day with less feed than he can make into beef, that month or day he 
fails to make us the money he might be making. 

Best Beef by Early, Constant Feeding — It is my opinion that not 
only the greatest weight of beef for the amount of food consumed, but also the best 
beef, is made by supplying a steer liberally and constantly with the riglit kind of 
feed during the first twenty or twenty-four months of his life. It stands to reason, 
and our experience points to the fact, that the thickest red meat, so desirable 
and valuable, with the richest intermingling of fat, must be made during the 
period of the steer's most rapid growth. If a steer be permitted to run until two 
or two and a half years old on barely living rations, we suspect his red meat can 
hardly be thickened or increased very much after that, by any kind of feeding. 
The fat may be put on him and put inside of him after he is two years old, and the 
quality of his red meat may be improved by good feeding. But I believe he has 
missed his chance to make the greatest thickness and best quality of red meat that 
he was capable of making. 

FEEDING FOR MARBLED FLESH 

The steers represented in Figs. 162 and 163 were fed a grain ration continuously 
from five to six months of age until they went to market. They ran with their 
dams on blue grass pasture until weaned. About five weeks before weaning we 
began to teach them to eat a little corn meal and ground oats mixed. At the first, 
very little — in fact, but a taste — was spread in their troughs. When finally taken 
off the cows they knew as well as older steers how to eat. 

For the next six or seven months they were fed all they could safely take of a 
mixed ration of corn in some form; oats, ground or whole; oil meal; and wheat bran. 
Not all of these different feeds are given all the time, hut two or three at each feed. 

Corn is our principal and constant feed from start to finish. Four-fifths of all 
concentrated feed used is corn — sometimes ground, again soaked; sometimes broken 
and sometimes whole corn fodder, shuck corn and all, just as it comes from the 
shock. 

Full Feed at Twelve Months — Until twelve months old we feed our 
steers cautiously. It is not so bad to give them somewhat less than they can 
safely take up to that age, as it is to give them more. When about a year old they 
go on full feed, i.e., all they will clean up and digest well. Steers will readily learn 




(286) 



HIGH-GRADE BEEVES IN CARLOAD LOTS 287 

to eat up clean much more than they can digest and assimihite. The point to make 
in good feeding is to keep steers eating up to the amount they can assimihite and 
make into good beef. The feeder must be the judge of what that amount is, and 
not the steer. I conclude that a peck of good sound dry corn, or at the most, 
one-third of a bushel, with two or three pounds of old process oil meal or the same 
quantity of gluten meal, and a pound or so of wheat bi'an wilh suitable roughage, 
will make as much beef on a steer twenty to twenty-four months old as any larger 
ration. And it will make a better quality of beef. Younger steers will need a 
proportionately smaller amount. 

At this time we have on full feed sixty-four high-grade Angus steers. Their 
average age is about twenty-five months. They are fed twenty pounds of good 
sound ear corn soaked, one and one-fourth pounds oil meal, and one pound of 
wheat bran for every steer daily in two feeds, morning and evening. We will 
increase the oil meal to about two and a half pounds. They have mixed clover and 
timothy hay in quite moderate quantity, and the run of about twenty-six acres of 
blue grass pasture. These steers are preparing for the Christmas market. At 
this time, September 20th, they are making entirely satisfactory gains. By the 
first of December they will be finished, ripe, prime beeves, heavy enough and fat 
enough and not too fat to meet the highest market demand. These steers and all 
the steers we have fed for many years are raised and fed in the open. They are 
never closely housed. They have sheds open to the south, to which they may go 
for protection' from storms. Sometimes, in the height of fly time, we have arranged 
for a cool, darkened place into which a load or more of steers which are receiving 
special fitting may retreat from the flies and extreme heat. 

Importance of Roughage — All our steers are fed in open troughs out 
of doors ; never less than a carload and sometimes three or four carloads eating 
together. It is of the utmost importance in full-feeding cattle to have them con- 
sume a proper amount of roughage. If steers are given all they v ill eat of concen- 
trated feed they are likely to acquire a morbid appetite for it and a capacity for 
making away with an extravagant amount of it, while they lose the natural appetite 
for more bulky food. 

In order to compel our cattle on full feed to consume a due proportion of rough- 
age, we often '"bed" the feeding bunks or troughs with mixed clover and timothy 
hay, or shredded fodder. Over this laver or bedding of roughage we carefully dis- 
tribute the concentrated feeds — corn, oil meal, etc. In this simple way, roughage 
and concentrated feeds are so mingled that the steers are obliged to take both at 



288 L. H. KERRICK ON BEEF MAKING 

the same time. It should never be forgotten that a steer is a ruminant. His 
digestion will suffer and assimilation will be imperfect if there is failure to main- 
tain some just proportion between the concentrated feeds and roughage which he 
consumes. Without doubt much larger gains will be secured for the corn and 
other concentrates consumed by judicious mingling with suitable roughage. 

Beef or Tallow : Which ? — Referring again to the pictures of the 
"Babes in the Wood" and the "Grand Champions," their great thickness is 
apparent. Which is it, beef or tallow ? Buyers and judges are prone to believe 
that such cattle are excessively fat — "overdone." It is true that the majority of 
steers showing such great thickness are too fat ; but not these. The majority of 
steers do not go on full feed till past two years old. They are then generally fed 
an excessive amount of corn — a fat-making food, without the protein-bearing oil 
meal or gluten meal to supplement it; and the result is, frequently, overdone and 
overfat cattle. Not so with steers fed during tlieir rapid-growing period with corn, 
properly balanced by the addition of oats and bran and some oil meal or gluten 
meal. The steers represented in the figures showed a great development of red meat 
richly mottled with fat ; but there was no excessive percentage of fat. And none 
need be feared from such feeding as they had. On this point we can speak from 
many years of experience. 

CONCLUSION 

Summing up, we advise farmers generally throughout the Corn Belt to breed 
and feed cattle for beef. Feed liberally, feed for beef all the time, from calves to 
finished ripe beeves. Instead of growing a steer to be afterward "fattened," grow 
a beef, ripe, finished, fat, and prime, in twenty to twenty-four months. You will 
thus make better beef, and make it in less time, and make more of it with a given 
amount of feed than by the old method of growing a steer to be afterward fat- 
tened. Aim to maintain good variety in the feed. Supplement the coin with 
oats, bran, oil meal, or gluten meal. Supply good roughage, and feed in such a way 
as to secure the consumption of a due amount of it. Breed for the early maturing 
type. Handle your cattle gently, always; treat them humanely, kindly; the very 
best results may not be expected without such treatment and handling, 



Feeding^ Native Cattle for Beef 

By John P. Stevenson, Tarkio, Mo. 

Practical farming, in a nutshell, is the farming that is planned and carried out, 
3'ear by year, with a view to making the most of every natural advantage, and 
turning even what might seem to be disadvantages to profitable account. The 
practical farmer is the. farmer who studies and solves his own problem, taking 
whatever he can get, to be sure, in the way of side-light from the experience and 
research of others, but never forgetting that bushels can not be measured with yard- 
sticks, and that what is gospel truth in one part of the country may be rank heresy 
in another. Many an Eastern farmer, for instance, seeing hundreds of bushels 
of ear corn hauled out daily to the steers in an Atchison County feed lot, doubtless 
would exclaim at what he would consider a willful waste. Willful waste it might, 
indeed, be for him ; but for us, it is the most profitable way of marketing our staple 
crop. The hogs that follow the steers see to it that scarcely a kernel, scattered, 
tramped in, or undigested, goes to waste. 

Natives vs. Rangers — The feeders of the Missouri Valley who make it 
their business to put six months of beef-and-fat-growing on to the steers other 
farmers and ranchers have raised, have merely adapted themselves to the circum- 
stance that their acres lie in the richest part of the Corn Belt, and convenient both 
to stocker markets and to beef markets. When it comes to choosing what sort 
of stockers they shall feed — whether natives or rangers — they must again accom- 
modate themselves to circumstances. A large feeder — and by that I mean one who 
turns out beeves by the thousand annually — can scarcely obtain for his feed lots 
native cattle of desired quality exclusively. Nor can one whose feeding operations 
extend to no more than 500 or 600 head a year be always sure of getting them. 
My own preference, however, is for Kansas feeders — any fairly well-bred cattle, 
regardless of breed. If native cattle of proper form and even condition are not 
obtainable, Westerns must be used ; but with me they are a second choice. 

The best time of year for buying feeders in the stocker markets of the Missouri 
River is between the middle of August and the middle of November. To buy them 
at that time means carrying the bunch through the winter, but at the age I buy 
them — two years or more — there is growth in the steers still, and the fieshing-up 
they get is not simply a matter of laying on fat where there is room for it. 

(289) 



J. p. STEVENSON ON NATIVE CATTLE FEEDING 291 

Suniiner Feeding of Young" Steers — I have obtained my best results 
with summer feeding of steers that will weigh, when bought, about 900 pounds. 
For from four to six months before putting in the feed lot, I run them on stalk- 
fields and pasture (blue grass preferred, because of the way it withstands frost). 
In the stalk-fields I give them a light ration of corn in extremely cold and stormy 
weather. They are turned on to grass in early spring, and in from two to four 
weeks, by slowly increasing their ration, they are safely got onto full feed of corn — 
half a bushel per head, salt being kept where they can always get at it. The feed- 
ing period lasts for about 180 days. There is profit, in my experience, in winter 
fattening, but not so much as in summer feeding. In the case of winter feeding, 
the steers are fed — under sheds, with free access to the open feed lot — all the 
hay or corn fodder they will eat, with a full ration of corn — snapped, husked, or 
shelled, the shelled corn being used especially at finishing time. In the winter I 
have fed up to 4 pounds per day of cotton-seed meal with excellent results, and 
either bran or linseed meal, or both, in moderate quantities, has proved beneficial, 
though one can not count on the hogs receiving any appreciable share in the"benefit 
from these feeding-stuffs. On the other hand, in the case of corn, when we run a 
shoat after every steer, as I do, we figure that the hogs get 15 per cent of the grain 
fed, and while the steers are making an average daily gain of about 3 pounds (on 
full feed of corn, with grass in summer) the hogs are laying on profits at the rate of 
from f to 1 pound a day. In winter, on full feed of corn with drj roughness, we 
count on average daily gain, for the steers, of from 2 to 3^ pounds. 

Results — The cattle thus fed are shipped to the Chicago and Missouri Eiver 
markets at from 3 to 3 j years, when they weigh from 1,300 to 1,350 pounds, the aim 
being to turn out beef steers of the market grade known as good.^ The year 1902 
has been one of exceptional prices, for which the state of the beef-cattle supply 
has furnished sufficient explanation, without need of any allegation that a "^corner" 
in the finished product was responsible. Under ordinary circumstances, in ordinary 
years, however, I should consider that a difference of from 11.50 to $1.75 between 
buying and selling piices gave an ample margin of profit on feeding, wliile a 
difference of only II would let me out without loss. 




iPrime beef comes from about one year's full-feeding of balanced rations, and is a higher grade than we make. 




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(292) 



Feeding" Raiige Cattle for Beef 

By David Rankin, Tarkio, Mo. 

The feeding of beef cattle with me is, to all intents and purposes, a manufactur- 
ing business. Where my farm practice is in harmony with scientific theory, it is 
because I have found that the theory brings profit in practice. Where I depart 
from theoretical practice, or stop short of following out an accepted theory to its 
extreme, it is because I can make more money the other way. 

Circumstaiices Govern Methods — You can not get away wholly from 
local conditions. I do not mean to imply by that that for the sake of present returns 
one is justified in misusing his land. The man who feeds all he raises and sells the 
concentrated product — beef — is not misusing his land; for the fertility is returned 
to the soil. The man who feeds all he raises and buys more feed besides is doing 
even better by his land, even if he may not be doing so well by his pocketbook. I 
should make more money if I could raise all the corn I want to feed; but I do not 
begrudge the $100,000 or such a matter that it costs a year for extra feeding-stuffs. 

The point I make is simply this: The feeding of farm stock is a science, but it's 
a science that we follow for profit. To lose sight of the practical side is as bad as 
to ignore what the experiment stations are finding out for us. A man can not afford 
to sell cheap corn and buy dear cotton-seed meal just because he will get a better- 
balanced ration out of the combination; whereas, on the other hand, when corn is 
high, he can better afford to make his rations "narrower "by the purchase of nitrog- 
enous concentrates. 

Very likely anyone who feeds range steers on a similar scale and under like con- 
ditions might be interested in my way of doing things ; but if the general run of 
farmers and feeders find what I have to say helpful, it will be because my experi- 
ence emphasizes the need of sound business management on the farm, instead of a 
reckless running after every new thing. Sometimes the farmer can afford to try 
experiments; sometimes he can't. Sometimes, he can afford to do exactly the 
scientific thing — and can not afford not to do it ; sometimes he can't. He must be 
the judge, and not afraid to stand by his own judgment — not afraid to be in a 

(293) 
20 



294 



DAVID RANKIN ON RANGE CATTLE FEEDING 



measure unscientific, if he finds that in all the circumstances it will pay him ; not 
slow to adopt new, scientific methods, if they commend themselves to his business 
sense. 

All that is j)recisely what the agricultural colleges and experiment stations are 
careful to tell the farmer : That no general rule can be followed blindly ; that 
every man must think for himself, feed as well-compounded a ration as he can 
afford, and keep his eye all the time on the profit. 

Shredded Fodder for Winter Feeding — In buying my range stock- 
ers, grown chiefly in Texas and on the Northwestern plains, I necessarily take what 
I can get in the way of breed — any good breed, well bred up and in fair flesh, not 
less than three-year-olds and weighing generally 1,000 pounds or over. If I were 
able to take my choice, I probably should prefer white-faces — Herefords. 











Fig. 166. Plowing and planting on David Rankin's ranch No 12. S'il ii.inlitions in Northwestern Missouri make it 
possible to list in the seed-corn, combining the preparation of the seed-bed and the planting in one operation. 

I used to say that summer feeding was the thing to follow, but I am not so sure 
of it now that we are using shredded fodder. I believe that with shredded fodder 
the steers do as well as on grass. So I lay in my stockers according to my needs 
and the state of the range cattle market, but generally between August and October, 
and get them on full feed as quickly as possible, frequently in as short a time as ten 
days or two weeks. This sort of feeding is a wholesale matter. Labor must be 
economized. I never have a man do for a bunch of steers what the steers can Just 
as well do for themselves; so they are fed husked corn from behind the shredded- 
fodder stacks during the winter, the shredded fodder giving them all the roughage 
they need; for they have all they will eat. 



METHODS AND RESULTS 295 

Feeding Method and Rate of Gain — For pasture, I have dropped 
blue grass in favor of clover and timothy, and I run my cattle on it the year round, 
whenever the grass gets good. With the grass, in summer, I feed ear corn. From 
150 to 200 steers are as many as I find it desirable to run in the feed lot together, 
and from 200 to 300 will get pasturage, if they have plenty of corn, after the grass 
gets well up, from every 160 acres. The heavy feeding begins about the first of 
March, and when corn is dear, each steer has from 5 to G pounds of cotton-seed meal 
daily. The salt is kept before them all tiie.time. Feeding in that way, the bulk 
of the steers are finished during the summer months, when prices are best, and 
before fall poultry comes into competition with beef. The selection for shipping 
goes on daily during the shipping season, the weights of the beeves ranging from 
1,200 to 1,400 or 1,500 pounds. A steer well bred up and in fair flesh at the start 
ought to be a beef in four months' time, though some take as much as six months 
to be fit for market. I figure on an average daily gain per head, for the feeding 
period, of from 2 to 2| pounds ; and with average conditions ( say corn at 35 cents, 
hay at 18, and other feeding stuifs in proportion ) I should want $1.50 margin over 
cost price in order to make a satisfactory profit. 



296 



HOW FARMING PAYS 



BUSINESS METHODS ON THE FARM 

David Rankin's ranches are situated near Tarkio, Northwestern Missouri, and 
comprise between 33,000 and 33,000 acres of kind, most of which is valued in the 
neighborhood of 1100 an acre. As a practical illustration of the profit farming 
may be made to yield by the application of business principles to all its details, the 
following summary statement of Mr. Rankin's operations for the year 1900 will be 
found of interest : 

Statement of Farming Operations for 1900 



Foremen 



Ross.. 

Kenney 

Ramey 

New 

Mullen 

Hanna 

Sunderland 

Kendall 

Smithson 

Wreath 

Town 

Rankin <fc New 

Rankin & Cowden 

Totals and Averages 



Number 


Number 


of 


of 


Acres 


Cattle 


3,280 


1,828 


560 


447 


800 


162 


2,880 


650 


2,000 


638 


3,080 


TOO 


1,680 


500 


690 


423 


800 


510 


2,519 


3;3i 


941 


621 


960 


300 


2,000 


429 


22,190 


7,539 



Net 
Proceeds 
of Cattle 



I 44,598.90 
10,457.17 
3,750 23 
13,197.68 
16,979-67 
18,599 53 
8,613.33 
7,608.79 
12,432.61 
7,404.28 
13,115.21 
6,271.00 
9,491.79 



§172,520.19 



Net 
Proceeds 
Per Head 



24 39 
23.39 
2;B 14 
20.30 
25.04 
22.28 
17.23 
17.98 
24.37 
21.97 
21 11 
20 90 
22.12 



I 22.88 



Number 

of 

Hogs 



1,232 
320 
343 
567 
693 

1,327 
666 
458 
384 
705 
458 
274 
822 

8,249 



Net 
Proceeds 
of Hogs 




Expenses 

Including 

Interest 



114,355.89 
2,302.21 
3,191.96 

12,286.75 
9,.552.85 

16,633 73 
8,510.24 
3,111 25 
3,371.94 

10,.506.54 

8,027.77 

— -* 



$91,851.13 



Expense 
Per 
Acre 



^.37 
4.11 

3.98 
4.27 
4.77 
5.40 
5.06 
4.51 
4.21 
4.18 
8.53 



Corn 
Bought 
Bushels 



98.720 
37,191 
2,800 
10,743 
41,601 
15,636 
27,002 
24.354 
37,442 
42,362 
47,898 



385,749 



Amount Paid 
for Same 



$ 25,455.81 
10,522 00 
840 00 
3,222 90 
12,462 08 
4,690.80 
7,412.59 
6,513 00 
9,691 00 
10,768 00 
13,968.00 

* 

* 



1105.546 18 



Total 

Net 

Receipts 



62,553.09 
15,133.13 
8,290 21 
20,8:31.99 
26,169.74 
35,888 33 
17,840 03 
13,910 32 
17,777 37 
16,946.32 
19,290 64 
10,137 83 
19,591 31 



1284,366 33 



Total 

Disbursements 

+ 



$ 39,811.70 
12,824.21 
4,031 96 
1.5,509.65 
22,014 93 
21,324.53 
15,922.83 
9,624.85 
13,062.94 
21,274.54 
21,993.77 

---* 

...t 



)7..397.31 



Net 
Profit 
OR Loss 



822,741 39 
2,308.92 
4,264 25 
5,322.34 
4 154.81 
14.563.80 
1,917 22 
4.286.07 
4.714 43 

* 4,328.22 

* 2,705.13 
** 5,337.83 
** 9,591 31 



t+ ?86.969 02 



Net 
Per 
Acre 



$6.93 
4.12 
5.33 

1 85 
2.08 
4.73 
1.14 
6.21 
5.89 

* 1 71 

* 2.87 
** 5.55 
** 4.79 



3.92 



* Loss. Ranch 11 is bottom land, and suffered from excess of raiu and from overflow. Ranch 12 is the home 
ranch, where all the ranch teams go to feed when in town. Thus its profits were eaten up by the other ranches. 
+ From net proceeds. X Included in stock account for these ranches. § Ranch 3 has been consolidated with 
another. ** These figures are obtained by subti-acting an assumed average expense per acre of $5. t+ This total 
is made without the subtraction of assumed expense. 



Diseases of Farm Animals 

By R. A. Craig, D. V. M. 

Instructor in Veterinary Science, Purdue University, LaFayette, Ind.; and Assistant State Veterinarian 

of Indiana 

RECOGNIZING THE DISEASE 

Health and Disease — To understand the meaning of the many symptoms 
or signs of disease in the domestic animals, we must have some knowledge of the 
structure and physiological functions of the different organs of the body. We must 
be familiar with the animal when it is in good health in order to be able to recognize 
the deviation from normal due to disease. Laymen, as a rule, do not consider the 
difficulty of making a correct diagnosis, and few have an opportunity to learn from 
personal observation the different symptoms that characterize different diseases. 
All well-informed stockmen who give personal attention to the animals under their 
care know when any of them are sick, as soon as the first symptom of disease 
manifests itself, by the changes in general appearance and behavior. In order to 
ascertain the exact condition, however, a general and systematic examination is 
necessary. The examiner, whether he be a layman or a veterinarian, must not be 
careless in the inspection, but observe th6 animal carefully, noting the behavior, 
appearance, general condition, and surroundings. 

The general symptoms of disease inform us of the condition of the animal, help 
us to arrive at a correct diagnosis, and guide us as to the progress of long and severe 
affections. Thus we have symptoms connected with the condition of (a) the pulse, 
(b) the respirations, (c) the body temperature, (d) the surface of the body, (e) the 
visible mucous membranes, (f) the secretions and excretions, and (g) the behavior 
of the animal. 

Before making a general examination it is well, if one is not already acquainted 
with the history of the case (care, surroundings, behavior, etc.) previous to seeing 
it, to learn as much about this from the attendant as is possible. Inquiry should be 
made as to the feeding, the conditions under which the animal has been kept, the 
length of time it has been sick, its actions, and various other points that may 

(297) 



298 DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS 

be of help in forming a diagnosis as well as in indicating in part the treatment to be 
followed. 

(a) Pulse — The normal pulse beats per minute in domestic animals are as 
follows : 

Horse - - 36 to 43 

Cattle -- - 38 to 50 

Sheep and Goat 70 to 80 

Hog - 70 to 80 

Dog ---- - -.-80 to 100 

The frequency of the pulse in the different species is subject to great variation. 

Especially is this true of ruminants. In young animals the number of beats per 

minute is greater than in adults ; excitement and a nervous temperament may cause 

more rapid pulse ; during exercise and for a short time afterward the rate is higher 

than when at rest ; small animals have a more rapid pulse than large ones. 

The Horse's Pulse is generally taken from the artery {submaxillary) at a point near the 
inside and in front of the angle of the jaw. Here the artery winds around the lower border of 
the bone in an outward and upward direction, is quite superficial, and can be readily located with 
the finger. 

Ill Cattle the same artery is used but the finger is placed a little higher up on the side. It 
is more difiicult, however, to catch the pulse in this class of animals than in the horse, as the part 
is more fleshy. The pulse may be taken from the small artery on the under side and near the base 
of the tail. 

In Sheep and Goats the artery {femwal) on the inner side of the thigh is used. By 
pressing the hand over the region of the heart, one can also judge of its condition. 

In Dog'S the beats of the heart can be counted in the same manner, as the artery {brachial) 
toward the inner side of the arm above the elbow can be used. In dogs the heart beats can be 
counted. 

The following varieties of pulse are recognized in disease : frequent, infrequent, 
quick, sloiv, large, small, hard, soft, and intermittent. The terms frequent and 
infrequent have reference to the number of pulse beats in a given time ; quick and 
slow, to the length of time it takes the pulse wave to pass ; large and small, to its 
volume ; hard and soft, to its compressibility ; intermittent, to the occasional 
missing of a beat. 

(b) Respirations — In all domestic animals excepting ruminants, a some- 
what close relation exists between the number of pulse beats per minute and the 
respirations. ' This relationship is about 1 to 4 or 1 to 5, and during exertion is 
usually maintained. In ruminants the respirations may be about ten per minute and 
the pulse beats seventy or eighty. In disease the relationship between the two is 
disturbed and the following varieties of breathing may be observed : Abdominal, 



DIAGNOSIS 299 

when the movements of the walls of the chest are limited and the muscles of the 

abdomen are brought into play ; thoracic, when the muscles of the abdomen are 

kept as quiet as possible and the movements of the walls of the chest make up for 

the deficiency. In spasms of the diaphragm or "thumps," we notice a jerking 

movement in the region of the flank, accompanied by a short, jerking expiration. 

A Coug"h is generally due to some irritation of the air passages and is called moist, dry, 
and chronic. A moist cough occurs when the secretions in the air passages are abundant ; a 
dry cough, when the mucous membranes lining the air passages are dry and inflamed. In the 
different animals the character of the cough will vary. The chronic cough occurs in chronic 
diseases and varies in intensity. In pleurisy the cough is short and painful, and in broken wind 
shallow and suppressed. The odor of the expired air, character of the discharge, and the respira- 
tory sounds found out by auscultation, are important helps in arriving at a correct diagnosis. 

(c) Temperature — The temperature of domestic animals is taken in the 
rectum, the regular Fahrenheit fever thermometer being used. Before introducing 
it into the rectum the column of mercury must be shaken down below the normal 
body temperature of the animal and the bulb moistened. It should be inserted full 
length and left in position from two to five minutes, depending on the rapidity 
with which it will register. This must be done as gently as possible, especially in 
the case of the larger animals ; if they are vicious one must guard against kicks. 
The average normal temperatures of domestic animals are as follows : 

Range Average 

Horse 99.5 to 101.5 100.5 

Cattle 100.2 " 102.2 101.2 

Sheep and Goat 101.3 " 105.0 .103.0 

Hog 101.0 •' 105.0 103.0 

Dog 100.0 " 102.0 101.0 

The body temperature may be higher or lower than this and still be consid- 
ered normal. During exercise or when the weather or stable are warm and close it 
is elevated ; in cold weather or after drinking cold water it may be lower. Espe- 
cially is this true of ruminants. In order to get at the normal temperature in those 
animals showing wide variations it is well to take two or more readings at different 
times ; also to take that of some healthy animal in the herd and compare this with 
the temperature of the sick one. 

(d) Condition of the Surface of the Body — When a horse is in good 
condition and well cared for, the coat is short, fine, glossy, and smooth, the skin 
pliable and elastic. Healthy cattle have a smooth, glossy coat and the skin feels 
mellow and elastic. The fleece of sheep should look smooth and have plenty of 



300 DISEASES OF FAEM ANIMALS 

yolk; the skin, light pink in color. When the coat loses its luster and gloss, and the 
skin becomes hard, rigid or scurvy (hide bound), it indicates a lack of nutrition and 
an unhealthy condition of the body. In sheep, during sickness, the wool may become 
dry and brittle and the skin pale and rigid. When affected with external parasites 
the fleece looks taggy or the wool is lost over large areas of skin, the skin itself 
being greatly changed. During fever the temperature of the surface of the body 
is very unequal, and in serious diseases, or diseases about to terminate fatally, the 
surface feels cold ; frequently the hair is wet with a cold sweat. 

Horses and cattle that are allowed to "rough it" during the cold, changeable seasons of the 
year have a heavy, rough coat of hair, a provision of nature to protect them against the severe 
weather. 

When horses accustomed to hard work are kept in a stall for a few days the hind extremities 
are apt to till. This is seen in disease and frequently in mares toward the latter period of preg- 
nancy In diseases of the heart and kidneys dropsical swellings are often seen. In lymphangitis, 
pleurisy, etc., swellings may appear under the chest and abdomen. Sheep that are debilitated and 
weak, especially if the condition is caused by internal parasites, may show swellings under the jaw 
and in different parts of the body. 

(e) Visible Mucous Membraues — The visible mucous membranes in a 
state of health are usually a pale red, and during exercise or excitement redder 
and more vascular. In cold in the head the membranes of the eye and nose are of 
a bright red color. When any of the internal organs become congested the various 
mucous membranes (mouth, nose, eye) may assume a violet hue, and if the liver 
does not perform its functions properly may become tinged with yellow. In internal 
hemorrhage, and in anaemic (bloodless) conditions, they ai"e pale. In chronic indi- 
gestion the mouth is often foul and soapy; in the dog the tongue is furred. When 
any irritation from the teeth is present, the mouth is excessively moist ; if the 
animal is feverish, dry. 

(f) The Character of the Excretions from the bowels, kidneys, and 
skin is often modified. This will be taken up later in the description of the symp- 
toms of the different diseases. 

(g) General Behavior — The animal may appear normal in so far as 
nervous manifestations are concerned ; or it may be nervous and easily excited, 
travel in a circle, have spasms or convulsions, or become actually rabid. The 
nervous tone may be depressed ; the animal may be stupid, may stand leaning the 
head against some object, or lie quiet and unconscious. Locally there may be par- 
alysis of either motion or feeling, or both. 



TREATMENT 301 

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINE 

Drugs may be administered by the following channels : (a) By the mouth, (b) by 
injecting into the tissues beneath the skin, (c) by rubbing into the skin, (d) by the 
air passages and lungs, and (e) by the rectum. 

(a) Drenching — The most common method of administration is by way of 
the mouth. Whenever possible, drugs should be given with the feed or drinking 
water, as this gives the attendant the least trouble. Bulky drenches are often hard 
to give, and one must count on a part being wasted. 

In drenching horses it is best to put a bridle on the head instead of a halter ; tie a small rope 
or line to a strap fastened to the ring on each side of the bit, and elevate the head by throwing one 
end of the rope over a beam and having it held there by an attendant. A heavy, long-necked glass 
bottle can be used. If the mouth is filled with the drench and the animal refuses to swallow it, a 
tablespoonful or so of water can be dropped into the nostril. This forces the horse to swallow. 
A drench should never be given through the nose, as it may cause a fatal inflammation of the air 
passages and lungs. In giving small drenches the head can be elevated with the hand and a dose 
syringe or a small bottle used. 

Cattle are quite easily drenched. Sheep can be drenched in the standing position or 
when thrown on the haunches and held between the knees. The standing position is to be pre- 
ferred, and it is best to use a' small dose syringe. Care should be exercised in giving bulky or 
irritating drenches to sheep, as a part may get into the air passages and cause serious trouble. 

The easiest method of drenching a (log is to hold him between the knees, pull out the cheek 
so that a pocket is formed between it and the teeth, and then pour the medicine into the pocket. 

Balls — The most common method of giving horses drugs that do not go into 
solution readily is in the form of balls. They can be made by mixing the medicines 
with syrup, honey, and linseed meal and rolling the mass into the form of a cylin- 
der about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and a few inches in length. Tissue 
paper is then wrapped around it. 

Veterinarians seldom use balls, as gelatin capsules are more convenient. A powder may be 
rolled up in tissue paper alone and this is very often the handiest way to give it. In giving a 
ball, care must be used or the hand will be injured by coming in contact with the teeth. The ball 
must be held between the ends of the first finger and the thumb, the tongue pulled out as far as pos- 
sible and held to one side with the left hand, and the ball passed backward between the two rows of 
upper molars and deposited on the back part of the tongue. The tongue is then quickly released 
and the head elevated for about a minute. If the animal is at all restless it is well to have an 
attendant help hold the head, as the patient may work the ball between the teeth and quid it. 

(b) Hypodermic Administration — Injections beneath the skin are 
suitable when the drug is non-irritating and the dose small, or when prompt, ener- 



302 DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS 

getic efEects are required, as in acute pain or collapse. For this purpose the active 
principles of drugs are generally used. 

The point of injection is usually on the side of the neck or shoulder. A fold of the 
skin is picked up with the lingers and the needle quickly introduced, care being taken not to prick 
or scratch the muscular tissue, as this might cause the animal some pain and make it struggle. In 
order to prevent an abscess from forming at the point of injection, it is necessary that the needle 
and syringe be sterile. If the hair is long, it should be clipped at the point of inoculation and the 
skin washed with an antiseptic solution, as carbolic acid or creolin. 

(c) Superficial Api^lication — Drugs are not absorbed through the un- 
broken skin, but when applied with friction or when the outer layer is removed by 
blistering they may be absorbed. Liniments, blisters, and poultices are applied for 
a local effect only. 

(d) Administration by the Air Passages — Volatile drugs are absorbed 
very quickly by the enormous vascular surface of the lungs. Chloroform and ether 
are administered by way of the respiratory tract for the purpose of producing gen- 
eral anaesthesia. Anesthetics are not so often used in veterinary surgery as in 
human surgery, but for some operations are indispensable. Inhalation of medicated 
steam is used for its local effect on the air passages and is useful in affections of the 
respiratory tract. 

In steaming large animals a pail about half full of boiling water should be used, an ounce or 
two of turpentine, creolin, or whatever drug is required, mixed with it, the pail held within about 
a foot of the animal's nose, and a light stable blanket thrown over its head so as to direct the 
steam toward the nostrils. Dogs can be placed on a cane-seated chair, a pail or pan of boiling 
water placed under it, and a sheet thrown over all. 

(e) Administration by tlie Rectum — Medicines are administered by 
way of the rectum at times when the animal can not be drenched, when it can not 
retain them in the mouth, and when a local action is desired. An enema or clyster 
is a fluid injection into the rectum and is employed for the following purposes : To 
accelerate the action of a purgative ; to stimulate the peristaltic movement of the 
intestines ; for local effect in inflammation of the intestines ; to kill intestinal para- 
sites ; to reduce body temperature ; to administer medicine, and to supply food. 

The best method of administering a clyster is to allow water to gravitate into the bowels from 
a height of from 2 to 4 feet. In giving large injections the hind parts of the animal should be 
raised. For large animals a good sized funnel to which are attached a few feet of rubber tubing 
or, in emergencies, of garden hose, is all the apparatus needed. The ordinary fountain syringe 
can be used for small animals and from half a pint to a quart of water injected. From one to 
several gallons of water may be required for horses or cattle. 



STOMATITIS IN HOESES 303 

The Dose— The doses given in the treatment of the different diseases, unless otherwise 
mentioned, are for adult animals. The dose for a colt one year old is about one-third the quantity 
given the adult ; two years of age, one-half ; and three years, two-thirds. In well-matured colts a 
larger dose can be given. In other immature animals the same proportion is followed, depending 
upon the degree of development. The character of the action of drugs is frequently entirely 
changed by varying the size of the dose. When drugs are administered at short intervals the size 
of the dose is reduced. 

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 
STOMATITIS 

{Inflammation of the Mucous Membraiie Lining the Mouth) 
STOMATITIS IST HORSES 

Causes — Stomatitis frequently follows irritation from the bit, teeth, irritant 
drenches, or roughage containing beards of grasses, burs, etc. It occurs when 
prehension of the food is impaired, the mucous membrane of the mouth not being 
kept clean by the secretions, so that particles of food or parts of the lining mem- 
brane of the month that are shed, decompose, thereby setting up an irritation. 
Eust and molds on grains may cause it. Stomatitis may occur as a complication 
in any of the ordinary febrile diseases, especially if of long duration. 

Symptoms — At the outset the mucous membrane of the mouth is congested, hot, and dry, 
and portions of it may have a dark red color, especially that part lining the cheek. Other por- 
tions are coated with a slimy, grayish mattei", and in a short time the odor from the mouth is 
fetid. Following this dry stage is the period of excessive secretion ; saliva dribbles from the 
mouth, and m bad cases is mixed with shreds of epithelium. Little blisters or vesicles in some 
cases may be scattered over the lining membrane of the lips, cheeks, and sides of the tongue. In 
the severe form the membrane becomes reddened and thickened : the swelling so great and the 
mouth so sore at times that the animal can not take food of any kind. When properly treated, 
recovery takes place very quickly. 

Treatment — Roughage and grasses that will n-ritate the mouth must be withheld. If due 
to a severe bit, its use must be discontinued ; sharp or diseased teeth should receive the proper 
attention. When the mouth is inflamed, mashes and gruels may be given, and plenty of clean 
water allowed. Twice a day the mouth should be washed out with a 2 or 3 per cent water solution 
of boric acid. It is advisable in some cases to use a water solution of some of the creolin prepara- 
tions (2 parts to 98 parts water). The wash should be thoroughly applied and plenty of it used. 

ULCERATIVE STOMATITIS IN HORSES 

Causes — This form of inflammation of the mouth is not common among 
horses. It is more apt to be seen in weak and debilitated animals than in animals 
in good condition. It is seen in some infectious diseases. 



304 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 

Symptoms — At first the symptoms are much the same as in the simple inflammation. Sores 
form along the gums, lips, and cheeks, considerable tissue is lost, and the ulcers may become deep 
and extensive. When these sores form the breath becomes fetid and the saliva is usually tinged 
with blood. The ulcers are tardy in healing, but unless complicated with some other disease 
recovery takes place. 

Treatment — Weak and debilitated animals should be built up if possible with nourishing 
foods, tonics, and good care. After washing out the mouth with a 4 or 5 per cent solution of 
some of the creolin preparations, the surface of the ulcers should be touched with lunar caustic. 
This treatment must be kept up until the ulcers show signs of healing. 

STOMATITIS IN CATTLE AND SHEEP 

Causes — The lining membrane of the mouths of cattle is thicker and more 
resistant to the attacks of bacteria than that of the horse, but still this does not pro- 
tect them from mechanical and chemical irritants, especially when on dry feed. 
Stomatitis is frequently seen in the infectious diseases that affect ruminants. Sheep 
have a more delicate buccal membrane, but the care with which they select their 
feed prevents this from being a very common disease. 

Symptoms — The symptoms are much the same as in the horse. Mastication is difficult, and 
the parts are congested, swollen, and inflamed. Saliva dribbles from the mouth. 
Treatment — The treatment is the same as for stomatitis of the horse. 

ULCERATIVE STOMATITIS IN CALVES AND LAMBS 

Causes — This disease seems to be communicated from one animal to another, 
and is no doubt due to some of the pathogenic germs. It is more common in lambs 
and calves that are debilitated and kept in unhygienic quarters (poorly-ventilated, 
filthy, damp stables). 

Symptoms — The gums become dark red, spongy, and bleed easily. In a short time a part 
dies, sloughs out, and a deep, ragged-looking- ulcer forms. These ulcers are seen on the lips and 
gums and may become extensive, the teeth loosening and dropping out, and perforations occurring 
in the lips. Threads of saliva dribble from the mouth, and the breath is fetid. The first symptom 
noticed is that the young animal is careless with the teat or refuses to suckle. The animal soon 
becomes weak, refuses to eat, and a fetid diarrhea sets in. The disease frequently results in death. 
Recovery takes place slowly. 

Treatment — The preventive treatment consists in improving hygienic conditions and isolat- 
ing diseased animals. The quarters should be thoroughly cleaned, and the floors and walls washed 
.with a disinfectant. The local treatment consists in removing the dead tissue from the ulcers and 
using antiseptic washes liberally. The ulcers should be touched with lunar caustic. 

STOMATITIS IN SWINE 

Causes — Irritating drenches, hot foods, and putrid or decomposed slops 
are among the common causes. The most common form of sore mouth is the 



STOMATITIS, LAMPAS, SALIVATION 305 

infectious or ulcerative form and is due to bacteria. It usually attacks suck- 
ling pigs. 

Symptoms — When a hog has a sore mouth, froth will accumulate around the lips, other- 
wise, in the simple form the symptoms are much the same as in other animals. In the infectious 
form the usual seat of the inflammation is on the inside of the lips and the gums. In bad cases it 
may extend to other parts of the mouth and outside of it so as to include the snout. The number 
of sores or ulcers may range from two to half a dozen. The ulceration progresses rapidly and con- 
siderable pieces of the gums, lips, or snout may drop oflf. The teeth may also fall out. 

Treatment — The preventive treatment is very important. If the disease is present in a herd, 
special measures must be taken to keep the pens clean. The diseased pigs must be separated from 
the healthy ones. The medicinal treatment consists in applying creolin preparations to the dis- 
eased parts of the mouth and washing the sow's udder with a solution of the same. 

LAMPAS 

{Congestion of the Hard Palate of the Horse) 

In young horses at the time of eruption or replacement of the teeth, or during 
digestive trouble, the hard palate often becomes swollen and projects down to or 
beyond the wearing surface of the incisor teeth. Horses with lampas often suffer 
barbarous treatment at the hands of the ignorant. 

Treatment — When due to the irritation caused by eruption or replacement of the teeth, the 
horse should not be fed hard grains, ground feed being preferable. If the teeth are sharp, long, or 
diseased they should receive the proper treatment. If the trouble is with the essential digestive 
organs, the disease should be treated. In cases where the hard palate projects beyond the teeth 
and the animal has difficulty in taking hold of the food, the mucous membrane may be nicked 
with a sharp knife and a weak alum wash used on the parts. 

SALIVATION 

Causes — Salivation may be due to a number of different causes. The irrita- 
tion causing it may come from the food, medicine, or teeth. Certain drugs, as 
calomel and pilocarpine, may cause it. In late summer, horses running on white 
clover salivate. The most common cause, perhaps, is the irritation from uneven 
teeth. Foreign bodies in the mouth or gullet (oesophagus) will cause it. 

Treatment — The treatment consists in removing the cause. If the animal has uneven or 
long teeth, they should be floated ' and leveled by cutting off the projections with cutters. If due 
to drugs, their use must be discontinued ; if to dietetic causes, it should be corrected. Sometimes 
it is necessary to wash out the mouth with an astringent wash. Alum washes are useful. Horses 
in poor condition should not be turned on white clover pastures. 

1 Filed level. 



306 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 

DEPRAVED APPETITE 

{Licking Disease) 

Depraved appetite is especially common in ruminants. They seem to have an 
irresistible desire to lick, chew, and swallow indigestible and disgusting objects. 

Causes — Licking disease in most cases seems to result from example and is 
nothing more than a bad habit. In some localities, however, it seems to be due to 
improper food, especially food deficient in salts. This aberration is a common con- 
dition in countries where the soil is poor and lacking in lime salts. By some it is 
considered to be due to a depraved sense of taste, and is classified as a nervous dis- 
ease. When sheep are shut up during the winter, they may get into the habit of 
chewing one another's fleeces. Lambs are especially apt to contract this habit when 
suckling ewes having on the udder long hair soiled with nrine and feces. 

Syniptoius — The only noticeable symptom at first is the desire to chew, lick, or eat indi- 
gestible or disgusting objects. The digestive tract is soon involved, the appetite lost, and nutrition 
impaired, the animal becoming debilitated and weak. The animal is generally constipated, the 
feces having a fetid odor and containing foreign bodies. The course of the disease varies from a 
few months to a year, or even longer. It frequently terminates in death. 

TiiEATMENT — In localities where the disease is common, preventive treatment is important. 
When it occurs on poor pastures, a change to better land and a liberal allowance of salt will stop 
it, or a well-balanced ration of grain can be added. When indigestion is present, bitter tonics 
should be given. In sheep we must avoid keeping them in closed quarters, and allow plenty of 
exercise. The wool on the udders of the ewes should be clipped off, and if the lambs contract this 
habit, they must be separated from the mothers, except when nursing. 

INDIGESTION 

( G astro-intestinal Catarrh) 
I]S DIGESTION IN THE HORSE 

Causes — Indigestion is more common in the horse than in any of the other 
domestic animals. Very young or very old animals, especially if fed on a poor diet, 
are predisposed to it. Overloading the digestive organs with food, poor teeth, and 
working immediately after meals may cause it. The character of the food is also 
important, and it may follow the feeding of an unaccustomed ration or irritation 
from foreign bodies, or frozen, moldy, decomposed, or unclean foods. It is not a 
very serious disease if properly treated, and a spontaneous cure will follow the 
removal of the cause. It may, on the other hand, terminate in chronic indigestion. 

Syiiiptoms — In acute indigestion the horse may show evidence of abdominal pains after 
eating ; the intestinal sounds are louder than normal, the animal pants, looks at the flanks, and lies 
down. The feces are very often covered with mucus and contain imperfectly digested material. 



INDIGESTION IN HOKSES AND CATTLE 307 

Constipation or diarrhea are sometimes present and the abdomen is distended with gas. In some 
cases the body temperature is unequally distributed and the animal is feverish. It usually acts 
dull, yawning frequently, and the appetite is absent or greatly impaired. When the disease 
becomes chronic nutrition is seriously disturbed. The horse loses flesh, sweats easily, and the 
membranes in the mouth are pale, the coat rough and dull, and the skin inelastic ( hide bound ). 
Constipation and diarrhea frequently occur and "colics" are common. We often observe nervous 
complications {staggers). 

Treatment — In acute indigestion the treatment is mainly preventive, feeding good food, 
the proper amount, and at regular intervals. The horse should not be fed grain immediately after 
a severe drive, neither should it be driven hard immediately after a hearty meal. It is always best to 
water before feeding grain. If the horse is unable to masticate the food properly, due attention 
should be given to the teeth. The medicinal treatment depends on the various symptoms manifested. 
At first, dieting the animal will rest the stomach and intestines. For a few days it is best to feed 
foods that are easily digested. If constipated, a laxative can be given (from 1 pint to 1 quart raw 
linseed oil) . We can generally stop the diarrhea by a special diet (dry feed, flour in the feed, etc.) ; 
if not successful, prepared chalk (1 ounce) or laudanum (from i to 1 ounce) can be given. If 
colicky pains are present, fluid extract of cannabis indica given in ^ ounce doses will relieve the 
animal. In treatment of chronic indigestion bitter tonics and alkaliues are quite important. The 
following tonic can be given in the feed or in a ball two or three times a day : Powdered gentian 
(2 ounces), powdered nux vomica (1 ounce), bicarbonate of soda (4 ounces). Mix and give in i 
tablespoonf ul doses Or, give artificial Carlsbad salts mixed in the following proportions : Sul- 
phate of soda, chloride of soda, and bicarbonate of soda, equal parts ; 1 tablespoonful in the feed 
three times a day. 

INDIGESTION IN CATTLE 

Causes — The causes are improper care and feeding. Permanent stabling, 
feeding too little roughage or too much slop or grain, and crowded, poorly ven- 
tilated quarters. More common causes are abrupt changes from dry to green food, 
foreign bodies (hair-balls, sand, gravel, etc.,) overloading the stomachs, and frosty, 
moldy, or decomposed foods. 

Symptoms — At first the animal will not ruminate and the appetite is lost or irregular. It 
stands with the ears dropped, back arched, and abdomen tucked up, and grunts frequently. 
Sometimes the food is regurgitated. The body temperature may be imequal. In some cases 
colicky pains are present, animal lies down, rolls, gets up and continues restless and in pain for 
some time. When the disease is acute, improvement takes place in a few days or a week ; if 
chronic, especially if due to some general disease, it is serious. When chronic the animal is 
greatly emaciated, with coat dry and rough, skin hard and inelastic ; is usually quite weak, dull, 
and feverish, and has a very irregular appetite. Defecation is very irregular ; sometimes consti- 
pation and diarrhea alternate. 

Treatment — The treatment for cattle is mainly preventive and, as in the horse, consists in 
avoiding any condition that may cause it. Until the animal begins ruminating all food must be 
withheld or at most only such foods as are easily digested should be given. Green food is to be 



308 DISEASES OE THE DIGESTIVE TEACT 

preferred. It is advisable to give a cathartic of linseed oil (1 quart) or Glauber's salts (1 pound) 
dissolved in plenty of vrater. Following this a bitter tonic can be given , powdered nux vomica 
(1 ounce), powdered gentian (1 ounce), sulphate of soda (6 ounces); mix and give 1 tablespoonful 
three times a day. Artificial Carlsbad salts may be given in tablespoonful doses three times a 
day. In chronic indigestion the same agents may be used and the animal dieted. If the indiges- 
tion continues for many weeks it is apt to end fatally. 

INDIGESTION IN SHEEP 

Causes and Symptoms — The causes and symptoms of indigestion in 
sheep are about the same as in cattle. When sheep are poorly cared for and given 
an improper diet, especially if subjected to severe weather, their weak constitution 
predisposes them to all sorts of affections, especially indigestion. Under these 
conditions the mortality may be high. Some breeds suffer much more than others. 

Treatment — In large flocks of sheep it is impossible to treat each sheep individually. The 

preventive treatment is very important and with proper precautions we can prevent it from 

affecting a large number of animals in the same flock. The medicinal treatment consists in 

giving a cathartic — castor oil (from 4 to 6 ounces), dieting the animal, and giving a saline or 

bitter tonic — artificial Carlsbad salts (1 teaspoonf ul three times a day) or powdered nux vomica 

a ounce), powdered gentian {i ounce), sulphate of soda (3 ounces) ; mix and give 1 teaspoonful 

two or three times a day. 

INDIGESTION IN SWINE 

Causes — The causes of indigestion in swine are foreign bodies ; fermented 
foods, as spoiled swill, rotten corn, and musty grain ; easily fermented food, as 
green corn ; irritants, as wash waters, and indigestible and poisonous substances. 

Symptoms —The pig acts dull, bristles are erect ; is restless and goes off by itself, grunts, 
lies down, and roots in the litter ; breathing is rapid ; animal is thirsty, feverish, and will not eat. 
Vomiting usually occurs. There is no rule as to the duration of the affection ; it may last but a 
short time or continue for a week or more. 

Treatment — The treatment consists in the removal of the offending material with the least 
irritation possible. This usually requires a purgative, and raw linseed oil or castor oil may be 
given (4 ounces of the former or 1 ounce of the latter). Very often the animal will relieve itself 
by vomiting. If in pain, 1 teaspoonful of opium may be given to relieve it and repeated every 
hour till it is quiet. Use soap suds injection if necessary to evacuate the bowels. Allow the pig 
all the water it will drink, but give no food till convalescence begins ; then give sweet slops. 

TYMPANITIS 

(Hoven, Bloating) 
TYMPANITIS IN CATTLE 

Causes — Bloating is usually due to the animal eating large quantities of food 
that ferments easily, as clover, alfalfa, green corn, and second-growth sorghum. It 



BLOATING IN CATTLE AND SHEEP 309 

is more common when first going on pasture, in the spring of the year, and in the 
fall, than at other times. Stormy, damp weather seems to favor it. In weak, ill- 
fed, and poorly-cared-for cattle the movements of the paunch are weak, hence 
bloating takes place quite readily, and especially is this true in diseased conditions 
of the rumen. Sometimes bloating will occur through drinking freely of water, 
especially if it is cold, after eating large amounts of food. If these causes are not 
removed tympanitis will become chronic. In some chronic diseases, especially 
tuberculosis, this condition may be present as one of the symptoms of the malady. 
Diseases of the oesophagus may also cause it. 

Symptoms — On account of the paunch or rumen occupying the left side of the abdomen, 
the distension or swelling is principally on that side ; the distension occurs very quickly, is elastic 
and resonant. The animal stops eating and ruminating, arches the back, drops the ears, and has 
an anxious look ; the eyes are prominent, the pulse small and quick, the mucous membranes 
congested, respirations rapid, and the feet are gathered up under the animal or spread out, accord- 
ing to the severity of the trouble. Belching of gas occurs frequently, the breathing is rapid and 
becomes labored, the extremities feel cold, and the animal sinks to the ground and dies in a con- 
vulsion. Death is due to the pressure on the lungs by the distended rumen and the absorption of 
poisonous gases. The course of the affection is very rapid. 

Treatment — Preventive treatment is very important. Any change to green, easily fermented 
food must be made gradually, and we must not allow the animal to engorge itself with this kind 
of food. Cattle must not be allowed to eat large quantities of clover or similar forage, if wet 
with dew or a light shower. The quickest relief is obtained by using the trocar and cannula. The 
operation is quite simple and is not followed by any bad results. The seat of the operation is on 
the most prominent portion of the left flank. The instrument is plunged through^the walls of the 
abdomen and rumen, the trocar withdrawn and the gas allowed to escape through the cannula. 
After the gas has escaped, the trocar is replaced and both are then withdrawn. After using the 
instrument, it should be boiled a few minutes in water. This will insure us a perfectly clean 
instrument when needed. In chronic tympanitis the gas will form so rapidly that it is necessary 
to keep the cannula in position by tying a tape to the flange, running it around the abdomen 
and tying it. Cold water thrown on the flank, or pressure with the hand, will sometimes stimulate 
the movements of the rumen, and the gas is then worked off by the natural channels. Strychnine 
injected beneath the skin in the region of the paunch is useful in stimulating its movement. As a 
cathartic we may give 1 quart linseed oil and 2 ounces turpentine, or one pound Glauber's salts, 
dissolved in plenty of water. 

TYMPANITIS IN SHEEP 

Causes — The causes of bloating in sheep are about the same as in cattle, 
especially succulent feeds, as clover, grass, and rape, covered with dew or wet by a 
light shower ; and frosted roots. 

Symptoms — The gas forms in the rumen quite rapidly, the sheep is unwilling to move, is 
dull, breathes rapidly and with difficulty, and shows evidence of abdominal pain. 
ai 



310 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 

Treatment — As in cattle, the quickest relief is obtained by using the trocar and cannula. 
The method of puncturing the rumen of sheep is about the same as in cattle. A smaller trocar can 
be used, and we must use even more care in guarding against septic infection than in cattle, as this 
animal is more susceptible to peritonitis. When a number of sheep in the flock are affected, this 
method of treatment is too slow and it is necessary to treat the whole flock. If there is a running 
stream in the pasture or near by, the flock can be driven into it, and the action of the cold water 
coming in contact with the abdomen may stimulate the movement of the paunch. Preventive 
measures are very important in sheep. 

OVERLOADING OF THE RUMEN IN CATTLE 

Causes — When cattle are not accustomed to green fesd they are greedy and 
eat so niucli that the paunch is filled with it and digestion is interfered with. This 
generally occurs when cattle break into the grain bin, or clover or corn field. 
Apples or potatoes will cause it, if too many are eaten. Dry food may cause it, if 
the animal does not have access to plenty of water. When the digestive tract is 
diseased and the movements of the paunch are weak overloading is very apt to 
occur. 

Symptoms — The animal may show the same symptoms at first as in simple indigestion ; 
is in some pain, does not ruminate or eat, is dull and feverish. The thirst is often increased. The 
distended abdomen feels doughy, and after pressing on it with the fingers the impression remains. 
This enables us to differentiate this from bloat. Some gas will form in this trouble, owing to the 
food fermenting, but the most of the distension of the walls of the rumen is due to the mass of 
food. The general symptoms resemble those seen in bloat, but generally the disease does not make 
so rapid progress and is less acute. When the ear is placed to the abdominal walls we can detect 
no movement of the rumen. The disease may last for several days or may terminate fatally in a 
few hours. 

Treatment. — This is one of the diseases that can be prevented by using the proper precau- 
tions. By stimulating the movements of the paunch the mass of food will be worked off through 
the proper channels. Hypodermics of strychnine or eserine, pressure on the flank with the hand, 
and cold water thrown on the sides of the abdomen may stimulate it. If gas forms, the trocar 
must be resorted to. As soon as possible a drench of 1 or 2 pounds of Glauber's salts dissolved in 
a gallon or more of water should be given. As a last resort rumenotomy may be performed. 
This operation consists in incising the walls of the abdomen and rumen and removing the food 
with the hand. It is not a dangerous operation when properly performed and should not be post- 
poned until the animal is too weak to make a recovery. 

OVERLOADING OF THE RUMEN IN SHEEP 

Causes — Overloading of the rumen is often due to an excess of dry, innu- 
tritions fodder or a sudden change in the diet from indifferent food to palatable 
food given in excess. 

Symptoms — The symptoms are about the same as in cattle. The paunch when manipu- 



FOREIGN BODIES IN THE STOMACH 311 

lated with the hand feels doughy. The animal is dull, shows evidence of pain, breathes with 
difficulty, does not eat or ruminate, and is constipated. In severe cases the malady may terminate 
fatally in a few hours. 

Treatment — This disease can be guarded against in the majority of cases by using the 
proper precautions. The sick animals should be subjected to a rigid diet and given a cathartic of 
Glauber's salts (4 ounces) dissolved in plenty of water. Powdered nux vomica (in 20-grain doses) 
may be given three times a day. Rumenotomy is a dangerous operation in sheep. 

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE STOMACHS OF CATTLE 

Causes — Foreign bodies are found more commonly in the stomachs of cattle 
than of any other domestic animah This is due to the habits of the animal and its 
mode of prehension of food. Cattle usually eat hastily and do not pick their food 
over as carefully as does the horse. The foreign bodies are of different kinds ; some 
are smooth and round, as pebbles and hair balls; others are sharp, as nails, knives, 
wire, etc. ; in some cases concretions of sand or dirt form on the lining membrane 
of the stomachs. 

Syniptonis — Small round objects do no appreciable harm unless they block the openings. 
When large and rough they may cause an inflammation of the rumen. Incrustations of sand or 
dirt will cause symptoms of chronic indigestion. Sharp-pointed objects, unless they penetrate 
the walls of the stomach and injure the surrounding tissue or organs, will cause no trouble ; if 
they do, then grave digestive troubles arise. The animal suffers pain, looks anxious, and becomes 
emaciated and weak. It is very difficult to make a correct diagnosis in these cases, as the disease 
comes on without any apparent cause and one may not suspect the presence of foreign bodies. 
The heart and its coverings very often become injured and acute cardiac symptoms are manifested. 

Treatment — Medicinal treatment as a rule does no good. When one is positive of his 
diagnosis, rumenotomy may be attempted and the foreign body removed. Prevention is very 
important. Cattle should not be fed dirty food or slops, and in feeding baled hay care should be 
exercised to remove all the wire from the bales. 

INFECTION OF THE OMASUM IN CATTLE 

Causes — This disease may occur during any of the digestive troubles or 
febrile diseases. Any of the causes bringing on indigestion are liable to render this 
organ torpid. Food in excessive quantities, lack of water and sudden changes from 
dry to rich green food may cause it. 

Symptoms — The appetite is diminished, rumination occurs at irregular intervals, the body 
temperature is uneven, the animal is feverish, and it will grunt as if in pain. Bloating sometimes 
occurs and the bowels are constipated. The animal soon falls away in flesh, the appetite is lost, it 
becomes weak, presents an unthrifty appearance, walks stifliy, and arches the back. The disease 
may last several days and during its course the animal becomes delirious, or merges into drowsiness 
or stupor. Chronic cases sometimes continue for months. When recovery takes place, a diarrhea 



312 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 

is usually present, the feces containing black particles with polished surfaces, looking as if they had 
been baked. 

Treatment — The preventive treatment, as in other dietetic diseases, consists in avoiding the 
causes. Plenty of salt should be allowed. When the disease manifests itself, a purgative of Glau- 
ber's or Epsom salts (from 1 to 2 pounds in 1 gallon or more of water) should be given. One dram 
of powdered nux vomica may be given three times a day. Hypodermic injections of strychnine, 
eserine, or pilocarpine are very useful in this disease. When convalescence begins, the animal 
must be allowed moderate exercise and must have food of a laxative nature. 

GASTRO-ENTERITIS 

{Inflammation of the Stomach and Intestines) 
ENTERITIS IN THE HORSE 

Under this head the different forms of inflammation of the stomach and intes- 
tines will be discussed. 

Causes — The same conditions that produce acute indigestion may cause an 
inflammation of the stomach and intestines, the only difference being one of inten- 
sity. Inflammation is most frequent at times when there are great variations in 
temperature. Sudden cold or any influence that chills the surface of the body may 
cause it. Internal cold, caused by drinking icy water or eating frozen food, is a 
frequent cause. The infectious forms of enteritis are due to injurious matters in 
the feed (germs and ptomaines); the toxic forms to acrid poisons (caustic acids and 
alkalies, meat brine, etc.) 

Symptoms — The pain is somewhat severe. In slight cases we notice colicky pains after 
meals ; the animal lies down a great deal ; recovery takes place in a few days. In severe cases 
the animal is dull and feverish and the mouth is hot, with a fetid odor. The belly is tender, the 
colicky pains severe, respirations rapid, and the pulse hard and quick. The movements of the 
intestines may be suppressed at first and the animal bloats and is constipated ; later the intestinal 
sounds are increased and a diarrhea sets in that is sometimes mixed with blood and has a disa- 
greeable odor. In the toxic form the symptoms vary according to the character of the poison 
There may be spasms and convulsions, followed by collapse and stupefaction. Death occurs in 
coma. Simple enteritis usually does not persist more than a few days and in the majority of cases 
proves fatal. 

Treatment — The necessary lines of preventive treatment are good care and careful feeding. 
If symptoms of the disease are manifested, no matter how light the attack, warm, comfortable 
quarters with a rigid diet and, in cold weather, drinking water slightly warmed. It is best to 
keep the bowels as quiet as possible, so that purgatives or enemas are not desirable.. If the 
animal is suffering severe pain, morphine given hypodermically will relieve it, or 1 or 2 teaspoon- 
fuls of laudanum in from 1 to 2 ounces of linseed oil may be given every two hours. If the pain 
is not severe the intervals between the doses may be made considerably longer. Calomel in dram 



ENTERITIS IN CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE 313 

doses twice a day is useful as an intestinal antiseptic and to relieve the constipation. When con- 
valescence is reached we should be very careful as to the kind and quantity of food, as the diges- 
tive tract is not capable of performing its normal functions. 

ENTERITIS IN CATTLE 

Causes — The causes of enteritis in cattle are about the same as in the horse. 
Exposure to cold, damp, chilling winds, or drastic purgatives may cause it. Frozen 
foods, ice cold or foul water, and eating musty or acrid substances are common 
causes. It may be prevalent in low-lying, marshy tracts of land. 

Syiiiptonis — The loss of appetite and suspension of nutritiou, weakness, and general 
debility first attract attention. The animal is feverish and is often constipated. This is followed 
by a bloody diarrhea. During the first stages of the disease, and especially in the acute form, the 
animal is restless and shows evidence of suffering abdominal pain. The stools may contain 
fibrinous matter infiltrated with blood (croupous form). Enteritis may terminate in death in a 
short time or take on a lingering course. 

Treatment — If due to the diet or to unhygienic conditions these should be corrected. The 
medicinal treatment is similar to that used in the horse. When greatlj' depressed strong coffee or 
alcoholic stimulants may be given. 

ENTERITIS IN SHEEP 

Causes — This is not a very common disease m sheep and frequently occurs as 
a complication of some other disease. The common causes are mistakes in the care 
and feeding, and irritating foods and water. 

Syiiiptoms — The sheep stops ruminating and the appetite is impaired. There is some 
abdominal pain. The abdomen is sensitive, pulse and respirations quickened, and body tempera- 
ture elevated. Constipation is present at first, followed by a foul-smelling diarrhea mixed with 
mucus or blood. 

Treatment — If the trouble can be traced to faulty feeding or care it must be corrected. 
The constipation is combated with cathartics and injections. Mucilaginous drinks may be given. 
If the animal is in pain, a teaspoonful of laudanum may be given two or three times a day. 

ENTERITIS IN STVINE 

Causes — The nature of the food fed to this class of domestic animals and 
filthy pens are the main causes. Meat brine and washing powders are exceedingly 
irritating and even poisonous to swine. Any chemical irritant in the swill may 
pave the way for the germs by irritating the lining membrane of the intestines. 

Symptoms — The animal is dull, abdomen tender, the body temperature high, movements 
stiff, walk staggering, and there is a tendency to lie under the litter and leave the rest of the 
herd. The bowels are at first constipated. This is later followed by a diarrhea. The animal 
becomes very dull, weak, and emaciated. The malady may end in death in a day or pursue a 
course of several days or a week. In meat-brine poisoning the symptoms come on very suddenly. 



314 DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 

At first there is great weakness and evidence of pain. Vomiting and diarrhea nearly always 
occur. The breathing is short. The posterior parts may become paralyzed and there will be con- 
vulsions (fits). The symptoms of poisoning by washing powders are diarrhea, vomiting, fever, 
partial paralysis, and nervous disturbance. Most of those attacked die. 

Treatment — When constipated give the animal about 2 ounces of castor oil or from 15 to 
30 grains of calomel. It is highlyvbeneficial to give the pig flaxseed tea or gruels to drink. The 
abdomen may be irritated by applying turpentine to the hide and covering it with a blanket until 
the skin looks red. Care should be taken in feeding the animal during the convalescent stage. 
If traceable to alkaline wash powders, vinegar given to the animal in a drench may help neu- 
tralize them. 

GASTRO-ENTERITIS IN YOUNG ANIMALS 
(Scours, Diarrhea) 

Causes — When scours affects a large proportion of the young animals in a 
herd it is due to germs present in the quarters in which the young are kept and 
gaining entrance to the system by way of the umbilical cord. Infection usually 
takes place at the time of birth. Withholding the first milk, raising the colt on 
cow's milk, irregular feeding, and allowing the colt to suckle when the dam is 
warm, are common causes of digestive troubles or diarrhea in the young. When the 
mother is sick the milk is very apt to be irritating to the young animal. Sudden 
changes in the ration of the mother or too much milk may cause it. Dark, cold, 
damp, filthy. quarters predispose the young to this disease. In case they are brought 
up artificially, too rapid swallowing of the milk and fermented milk are common 
causes. 

Sy niptonis — When the disease is due to infection the symptoms are manifested within the 
first few days after birth; if to other causes, generally within the first few weeks. Constipation 
may precede the other symptoms. The animal acts dull and droops the ears, is careless of the teat, 
and sometimes will not suckle or drink milk at all. There is evidence of suffering, the diarrhea is 
foul smelling, the tail and hind parts become soiled, and the animal is very weak and loses flesh 
rapidly. There is an elevation of body temperature, and the respirations and pulse are quickened. 
Death may result from exhaustion. In the infectious form in calves the mortality is rather high. 

Treatment — This is mainly preventive. Dry, clean, well-ventilated quarters should be 
provided, and when the infectious form is known to be present in a herd, the umbilicus must be 
disinfected soon after birth by washing it with a 10 per cent solution of carbolic acid or some of 
the creolin preparations. The quarters must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. The first milk 
of the mother should be given to the newborn as this acts as a natural laxative and clears out the 
intestinal tract. The young animal must be fed regularly, and not too much; the mother's diet 
should not be changed, and if too much milk is furnished the young, she must be dieted. In mares 
that are worked, when warm, it is best to milk a little from the udder before allowing the colt to 
suckle. When a colt is brought up on cow's milk, about two-fifths water and a little sugar should 
be added to it. When fed artificially it is best to warm the milk. We should always strive to get 
strong, vigorous, healthy young. The medicinal treatment is less satisfactory than the preventive. 



DIAERHEA, COLICS IW THE HORSE 315 

It is always best to give a laxative at first (1 or 3 ounces of castor oil for the colt or calf; 3 drams 
for the lamb). Following this we may give the following mixture: Bicarbonate of soda (1 ounce), 
salol (i ounce), bismuth subnitrate (i ounce); mix, and to the colt and calf a^mall teaspoonful 
may be given in a little milk three or four times a day. Lambs receive from one-fourth to one- 
half as much. To cases suffering from a painful watery diarrhea it is well to give laudanum two 
or three times a day (1 teaspoonful for the colt or calf and 8 or 10 drops for lambs). 

DIARRHEA 

Causes — Diarrhea often occurs as a complication or as one of the symptoms 
of inflammatory diseases of the digestive tract. It is frequently seen in the various 
infectious diseases. 

Symptoms — An animal having a diarrhea is usually dull, weak, and thirsty, and may have 
colicky pains. Sometimes it is quite feverish, and, if the diarrhea continues for some time, falls 
away in flesh rapidly. The evacuations are thin and offensive. The hind parts and tail become 
soiled. 

Treatment — Diarrhea can be guarded against by using preventive measures. When occur- 
ring as a symptom of disease, the cause must be removed before we can hope to treat the condition 
successfully. In all cases we should first give a cathartic of linseed (1 pint) or castor oil (4 ounces). 
In recent cases a hypodermic of morphine will check it, or laudanum may be given in good-sized 
doses and repeated if necessary (horses and cattle, 1 ounce). An ounce of prepared chalk and a 
dram or two of powdered opium given in a ball is useful in checking it. 

Other drugs that may be used are salol," bicarbonate of soda, and bismuth subnitrate. 

COLICS IN THE HORSE 

FLATULENT OR ^VIND COLIC 

Causes — Wind colic is due to foods that are easily fermented, sudden changes 
in the food, eating when tired, too severe work after a hearty meal, drinking a large 
quantity of water after feeding, improper mastication of the feed, or any of the 
common causes of indigestion. 

Symptoms — At first the horse is restless and has colicky pains. The abdomen on the right 
side soon becomes distended with gas, and when we place the ear to the right flank we can hear 
loud intestinal sounds, rather metallic in character. As the swelling increases, the animal becomes 
anxious and has great difficulty in breathing ; the nostrils ai'e dilated, eyes prominent, and it 
staggers. Sometimes the horse regurgitates gas, vents wind, and passes some feces. Unless 
relieved, death will take place very quickly, owing to the pressure on the lungs by the distended 
viscera and the absorption of poisonous gases by the vessels in the walls of the intestines, or to 
the rupture of the stomach or intestines. 

Treatment — The preventive treatment is important and consists in proper methods of feeding. 
We can facilitate the escape of gas by way of the rectum by giving cold water injections. The 
quickest relief is obtained by puncturing the distended intestine with the trocar and cannula, nor 



316 DISEASES OF 'THE DIGESTIVE TKACT 

should one put oflf doing this until too late. We must keep the horse from throwing himself down 
or becoming injured. The pain in some cases is violent. Fluid extract of cannabis indica in 
i-ounce dose and repeated in an hour or two is useful in keeping the animal quiet. It is always 
well to give a cathartic in order to drive out the irritating substance, and it is well to diet and rest 
the animal for at least a day after it has recovered from the attack. A quart of raw linseed oil and 
2 ounces of turpentine is a useful cathartic. Other drugs that may be used hypodermically are 
pilocarpine, eserine, barium chloride, and arecolin. One should allow the animal to run in a grass 
plot or give him a large, comfortable stall when sick, for if in much pain it may injure itself. 

COLIC DUE TO OVERLOADING OF THE STOMACH 

Causes — This form of colic may occur in horses that are overfed, when the 
owner is fitting them for sale or for the show ring. It may result when the horse 
gets into the grain bin and eats a large quantity of grain. 

Symptoms — The animal shows evidence of colicky pains, but is not so restless at first as in 
other forms of colic. A flatulent condition of the stomach and intestines is usually present. The 
expression of the face is anxious ; the animal tries to vomit, and sometimes does, small amounts of 
alimentary matter coming out of the nostrils. In colic due to overloading, the horse takes unusual 
positions (the dog sitting position is one), in order to ease the pain or the pressure on the lungs. 
A rupture of the walls of the stomach is always to be feared in overloading. As a rule, this 
accident can be recognized by the animal becoming more quiet, the surface of the body cold, 
and the pulse small and weak. When the disease is about to terminate fatally, the expression is 
anxious-, the respirations quick, pulse imperceptible, and the mucous membranes pale ; the animal 
staggers and dies very quickly. In some cases death does not occur for several days after the 
rupture has occurred. 

Treatment — Keep the horse as quiet as possible, as there is danger of rupture of the stomach 
if the animal throws itself down or rolls violently. The following drugs are useful in keeping it 
quiet : Fluid extract of cannabis indica, morphine, and chloral hydrate. Flatulence should be 
treated the same as in flatulent colic. Bulky drenches must not be used, and the animal should be 
subjected for a few days to fasting. 

SPASMODIC COLIC 

Causes — Nervous, highly bred horses are more susceptible to spasmodic colic 
than coarse, lymphatic animals. The malady may be classed as a nervous colic, as 
irritation to the nerves of the intestines by cold, both internal (cold food and water) 
and external (wading frozen streams, etc.), will produce cramp in the intestines. 
Indigestible food and foreign bodies also may cause it. 

Symptoms — The attack occurs very suddenly and the pain is severe, violent, and of short 
duration, but returns in the form of successive attacks. The peristaltic movement of the intestines 
is increased and we hear loud intestinal sounds. The horse usually makes frequent efforts to 
urinate. This is caused by the irritation being communicated to the urinary apparatus and must 
not be mistaken for kidney trouble. 



COLICS AND THEIE CAUSES 317 

Treatment — All that is necessary in this form of colic is to give the animal comfortable 
quarters where it can not injure itself. In cold weather it must be covered with warm blankets 
and if necessary the limbs rubbed and bandaged. Morphine given hypodermically is almost a 
specific for this colic. Fluid extract of cannabis indica may be given (in from 2 to 4-dram doses) 
and repeated in an hour if necessary, or laudanum (H ounces) may be given in a little oil. If the 
colicky pains do not disappear in a short time the following ball may be given : Powdered aloes 
(6 drams), powdered ginger (2 drgms), extract of belladonna (i dram); mix and give as one dose. 

COLICS DUE TO OBSTRUCTIONS ALOXG THE INTESTIISTAL, TRACT 

In colics due to constipation the symptoms are not well marked and may run along 
for seveial days before colicky pains are manifested. The pains are generally very 
mild, the horse lies down more than usual, and does not eat. The abdomen is more 
or less distended with gas, and if the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum it is 
found to be filled with hard feces. 

Treatment — Constipation is very often due to feeding too much roughage and can be largely 
prevented by balancing the ration with grain and giving the horse sufficient exercise to keep it in 
good health. If the colic has not "been neglected, enemas and cathartics (linseed or castor oil) will 
relieve the animal. Laxative foods and plenty of water should be given till recovery is complete. 
Eserine, strychnine, pilocarpine, and arecolin given hypodermically are useful in this form of colic. 

Haie Balls 

Hair balls, composed of the vegetable hair found on clover, grains of oats, etc., 
and sometimes of hair from the horse's own coat or that of his mates, may be found 
in the caecum or some other part of the large intestine. It is only when the hair 
ball is large and some part of the intestine is blocked by it that colic occurs. If the 
obstruction of the intestine is complete death usually takes place in a short time. 

Intestinal Calculi 

Intestinal calculi composed of the different earthy salts, together with intestinal 
mucus, deposited layer upon layer around some central nucleus, as, sand, a pebble, 
hair, etc., are sometimes found in the caecum or colon. In appearance they are 
smooth, irregular in shape and sometimes so worn that one can make out the differ- 
ent layers that compose them. Calculi sometimes give rise to intermittent colics. 

colics due to changes in the RELATION OF THE INTESTINES 

Volvulus • 

The causes that result in the intestines sometimes becoming twisted are most 

obscure. It may be due to the unequal weight or volume of the different parts of 

tlie organ and its forcible contractions and movements that accompany some colics. 

All unusual movements (rolling, kicking, Jumping, etc.) of the animal may cause it. 



318 ■ DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

At first it is very difficult to diagnose the presence of this condition, but when the 
colic is persistent, the pains severe, and the treatment seemingly without benefit to 
the animal, one may at least suspect that this condition is present. An up-and- 
down movement of the head and neck and a peculiarly anxious, drawn expression of 
the face is frequently seen in volvulus. The prognosis is very unfavorable. 

Invagination 
This consists in the slipping of a portion of the intestine into that which is 
immediately next to it. This may occur as a complication in the different forms 
of colic. When this condition exists, the colicky pains may persist for some time 
and finally result in' the death of the animal. 

Hernia 

When the bowel passes down into the scrotum (scrotal hernia) of the stallion or 
colt, or into the canal leading to the scrotum (inguinal hernia), it may be com- 
pressed by the walls of the inguinal canal (become strangulated). In case it does, 
the pain is severe and the symptoms resemble those of an enteritis. A diagnosis 
can not be made without a careful examination, and very often the hernia can not 
be reduced without castrating the animal. The treatment must be prompt or the 
strangulated loop of intestine will become gangrenous. 

DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

Primary diseases of the liver are not common in domestic animals. Inflammation 

of the liver is seen in some of the infectious and contagious diseases. In some 

sections of this country "liver rot" occurs among cattle and sheep, but it is only 

in European countries that the liver fluke is at all common. Liver diseases are not 

common among our domestic animals and when this organ is involved, especially 

in the larger domestic animals, the symptoms are so obscure that it is difficult to 

make a diagnosis. 

JAUNDICE 

{Icterus) 

Jaundice is not uncommon among horses. It can not be called a disease in 
itself, but rather a symptom of disease, and is caused by the retention of bile and 
its absorption into the blood. 

Causes — Icterus, or yellows, may be seen in any of the febrile diseases when 
the excretions and secretions of the body are interfered with. It is one of the 
symptoms seen in congestion or inflammation of the liver. Obstruction of the bile 



DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM 319 

duct by gall stones or an inflammation of the duct will cause it. Overfeeding and 
lack of exercise are very common causes. 

Syniptoiiis — The digestive apparatus is generally disturbed, the animal has a poor appetite, 
is constipated or may have a dian-hea. The feces are grayish colored and foul-smelling. The 
animal acts dull, is sometimes feverish, and the visible mucous membranes (those lining the eyelids, 
mouth, etc.) are stained yellow by the bile pigment. When of recent origin recovery takes place 
very quickly. 

Treatment — When due to an improper diet and lack of exercise these conditions must be 
corrected and the animal dieted. It is advisable to produce a free action of the bowels by admin- 
istering a cathartic (for the horse, 6 to 8 drams powdered aloes; cattle, 1 pound Glauber's salts; 
sheep, 4 to 6 ounces Epsom salts). Two or 3 drams of calomel is a very useful purgative in horses 
and cattle. After clearing out the intestines it is usually best 'to give the following mixture: 
Glauber's salts, bicarbonate of soda, and common salt (equal parts); 1 tablespoonful of this can be 
given to- horses and cattle and 1 teaspoonful to sheep three times a day. 

DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM 
(a) ACUTE PERITONITIS 

Acute peritonitis occurs in all domestic animals, but not all are equally suscep- 
tible to it. The peritoneum of the horse is the most sensitive; next come ruminants 
(sheej) and cattle); then comes the dog, and last the pig. Because of the accidents 
that sometimes happen daring pregnancy and at the time of parturition, and the 
intimate relations existing between the peritoneum and the genital organs, perito- 
nitis is more common in the female than in the male. 

Causes — Accidental injuries of various kinds, such as wounds penetrating 
the walls of the abdomen and blows on the abdominal wall, may cause it. Opera- 
tions of different kinds — especially castration, if carelessly performed Avith dirty 
hands and unclean instruments — are frequently followed by acute peritonitis. In 
inflammatory diseases of the organs contained in the abdominal cavity the inflam- 
mation may extend to the peritoneum. Perforations or rupture of the stomach or 
intestines are followed by acute peritonitis. 

Syiiiptoiiis — Peritonitis can be easily diagnosed if the inflammation follows an operation 
on the abdominal cavity or an injury to its walls. When it occurs as a complication of another 
disease the symptoms shown may not vary greatly from the original disease. The pain is generally 
severe from the first, but in some cases this is not a prominent symptom. The animal refuses to 
eat, the severe pain is manifested in the usual manner, the body temperature is high, there are 
chills, the respirations are painful, the pulse quick and hard, the abdomen tucked up and sensi- 
tive, and the movements slow and stiff. Constipation may alternate with a diarrhea and the 
abdomen become distended with gas. At times the temperature is normal. In a local peritonitis 



320 DISEASES OF THE PEEITONEUM 

the symptoms are not nearly so marked and recovery usually takes place. In diffused peritonitis 
recovery rarely takes place, and if it continues for some time, the inflammation becomes chronic 
Treatment — This is one of the diseases in which preventive measures are highly important 
Local applications to the -walls of the abdomen are useful in combating the inflammation, and espc' 
cially is this true in small animals and in circumscribed peritonitis. The counter-irritants used are 
mustard or turpentine. In small animals, and if localized, applications of heat (flannel cloths 
dipped in hot water and wrung out) to the walls of the abdomen are reasonably satisfactory when 
kept up. If one can not do this, cold applications may help and are less trouble. If the disease 
follows an operation or infected wound, antiseptic solutions must be used freely and the part kept 
perfectly clean. "When the pain is very acute morphine or chloral hydrate may be given. To 
clear out and disinfect the intestinal canal, calomel (1 to 2 drams for the horse or cow, i dram 
for sheep) may be given twice a day for a few days. Enemas of warm water should also be given. 

(b) CHRONIC PERITONITIS 

Causes — Chronic peritonitis may succeed the acute form of the disease. 
In the ox it is generally due to tuherculosis or foreign bodies in the stomach. In 
chronic disease of internal organs peritonitis may occur as a secondary disease. 

Symptoms — As in all chronic diseases the symptoms, though generally the same, are not 
so intense as in the acute form. The abdomen becomes increased in size and edematous swellings 
may be present along its lower walls. The appetite is poor, bowels irregular, the animal weak and 
emaciated, mucous membranes pale, and heart action weak. Slight colicky pains are sometimes 
noticed. 

Treatment — When it occurs as a secondary disease, treatment is of little use. Counter- 
irritants may be applied to the walls of the abdomen and laxatives and bitter tonics (gentian, nux 
vomica, etc.) may be employed. It may be necessary to puncture the abdomen in order to remove 
the fluid. 

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS 

Examining^ the Urine — In diseases of the urinary apparatus a careful 
examination of the urine is often necessary before we can make a correct diagnosis. 
In domestic animals it is impossible to determine the exact amount of urine passed 
during the day, but we can judge the amount by noting the condition of the stall 
in which the animal is kept. It is often hard to get a sample of urine for exami- 
nation and we have to watch the animal carefully in order to collect. Normal urine 
is more or less of a yellow color, rather turbid or cloudy and more or less slimy in 
the horse, less so in other domestic animals. The reaction in horses or cattle is 
usually alkaline. This depends on the kind of food. In disease the urine may be 
lighter or darker ( pale, red, brown ) than normal. When a large amount is passed 
it is usually pale ; when mixed with blood it is red, and dark when a small quan- 
tity is passed, or when colored by bile pigment, drugs, or blood. We can discover. 



DISEASES OF THE UEINAEY ORGANS 321 

by testing the urine with certain reagents, whether the normal substances present 
in the urine are present in abnormal amounts or whether abnormal substances are 
present in it. A microscopic examination of the sediment is also of great impor- 
tance in making a diagnosis of some diseases. 

FREQUENT URINATION 

Causes — This disease is characterized by an excessive secretion of urine. 
The horse is the most frequent sufferer. The most common cause is musty feed 
(hay, grain, bran, etc.) New oats, watery feed, and acrid plants will sometimes 
cause it. 

Symptoms — The most prominent symptom at first is frequent urination, a large amount 
of pale colored urine being passed each time, the stall in which the animal is kept being continu- 
ally wet. The animal drinks more water than usual, the appetite is poor, and it rapidly falls away 
in flesh. Gradually it becomes weak and finally dies from exhaustion unless the cause of the 
trouble is removed. If the poisonous substances have been acting for some time it is diflicult 
to cure the animal. 

Treatment — A change in the food and a good nourishing diet generally are all that is 
necessary. If the animal is emaciated and weak, bitter and saline tonics are called for. In obsti- 
nate cases, treatment does but little good. The quantity of water drunk by the animal should be 
limited. 

CONGESTION OF THE KIDNEYS 

Causes — Irritation of the kidneys from acrid or moldy food and impure 
drinking water may cause it. It may occur as a complication of some of the infec- 
tious diseases, especially influenza. 

Symptoms — When the congestion is active, the amount of urine passed is increased, clear, 
and transparent. In some animals swelling and tenderness in the region of the loins is a very 
prominent symptom. The back is held slightly arched, and the gait is stiff and straddling. In 
passive congestion, the quantity of urine passed is less than normal and the affection is chronic. 
The animal may show general symptoms of ill health, stocking of the limbs, etc. 

Treatment — The cause of the disease must be removed, if possible. Laxatives of linseed or 
castor oil and mucilaginous drinks are needed. Hot applications to the loins are useful in combat- 
ing the congestion. These must be kept up continuously, and in cold weather the animal must be 
kept warm. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS 
(Acute Nej)lmtis) 

Causes — The action of cold on the skin and the different infectious diseases 
are common causes. The disease may follow a congestion of the kidneys. The toxic 
effect of such drugs as cantharides, turpentine, etc., may also cause it. 



322 DISEASES OF THE UEINAKY OKGANS 

Symptoms — At the beginning of tlie disease colicky pains are often present. In ruminants 
this is not a prominent symptom. The animal moves stiffly, the back is arched, urination is pain- 
ful, and water is passed in small quantities, frequently drop by drop, in spite of the efforts of the 
animal. The appetite is suppressed, pulse strong at first, but soon becomes weak, and the body 
temperature is elevated. In making a rectal examination, we find the bladder empty and the 
kidneys enlarged and sensitive. When the kidneys are no longer able to perform their function 
properly, uremia occurs. In the later stages of the disease the animal is weak, staggers, and may 
have spasms, and finally dies while in a comatose condition. The prognosis is very unfavoral)le, 
death occurring in the majority of cases. It seldom passes into a chronic inflammation, but this 
may develop from the first. Chronic inflammation of the kidneys generally develops very slowly 
and without giving rise to any very prominent symptoms at first In the chronic form the appetite 
is gradually lost, pulse hard, the limbs stock, and the animal gradually becomes weak and out of 
condition. 

Treatment — The animal must be given warm, comfortable quarters and absolute rest. The 
diet must be such that it does not irritate or increase the work of the kidneys. As in congestion 
of the kidneys, hot applications to the loins are useful, but if not kept up will do but little good. 
We must encourage the elimination of waste products by way of the intestines and skin. This 
can be done by administering a purgative and by energetic rubbing of the skin and encourag- 
ing perspiration by blanketing. If the animal becomes weak, general and heart tonics must be 

given. 

PURULENT NEPHRITIS 

During the course of blood-poisoning {septicmmia and pyfj^mia), pus-forming 
germs may reach the kidneys by way of the circulation and cause abscesses in the 
kidney tissue. The sym[)toms of the disease are not well marked at first and may 
not be recognized until the autopsy. 

RETENTION OF THE URINE 

Causes — This may be due to a variety of causes. In the ox or ram it is gen- 
erally due to calculi in the curvature of the urethra or at the terminal extremity. 
In the hoi-se the calculi are generally present in the bladder. Compression of the 
urethra by growths or tumors, strictures of the urethra, spasms of the neck of 
the bladder, paralysis of the bladder, and injuries to the penis are other causes. In 
cattle calculi or a soft putty-like material may collect in the sheath and obstruct the 
tluw of urine. Calculi usually form through the collection of the urinary salts 
around some foreign body, the excess of the urinary salts being due to an excess of 
lime or other salts in the water or food. 

Symptoms — Pain is the first symptom manifested in the horse, and it makes frequent 
efforts to urinate. In ruminants it may be a day or two before any characteristic symptoms arise. 
The efforts to urinate are not marked, the tail is elevated, and contractions are noticed along the 
perineum, just beneath the anus. Sometimes the urine dribbles from the sheath drop by drop. 



DISEASES OF THE CIKCULATORY SYSTEM 323 

If a rectal examination is made, the bladder is found distended with urine. The appetite is soon 
•ost, the pulse is accelerated, and the countenance sad. When a collection of material in the 
•jheath obstructs the flow, the sheath becomes inflamed and the trouble is easily located. If the 
animal is not relieved the bladder ruptures and peritonitis results. Death may result from uraemic 
poisoning. 

Treatment — When due to spasm or paralysis of the bladder the catheter can be used. If due 
to spasm, spreading fresh litter under the horse and keeping it quiet may induce it to urinate. A 
gradual and even pressure on the bladder with the hand may cause the animal to urinate if no 
obstructions are present in the urethra. The treatment for calculi is entirely surgical. When a 
collection forms in the sheath it should be removed with the fingers or washed out by injecting 
water into the sheath with a syringe. The sheath should be washed out with warm water and a 
little vaseline smeared over the inflamed tissues. 

INF1.AMMATION OF THE BLADDER 

{Cystitis) 
Cause — Irritation to the bladder due to the retention of the urine and toxie 
matters (molds, turpentine, cantharides, etc.) that are eliminated from the blood by 
way of the kidneys. Exposure to cold may also cause it. It may occtir in the dif- 
ferent infectious diseases. 

Syiuptonis — The animal is sometimes feverish, with poor appetite, and stiff movements, 
and it falls away in flesh. It frequently tries to urinate and passes small quantities of urine each 
time. If we press on the bladder with the hand it causes the animal pain. 

Treatment — The animal should be rested. The cause of the inflammation should be removed 
if possible. We can administer remedies that will modify the condition of the lining membrane. 
The following mixture may be given: Chlorate of potassium (3 ounces), salol (4 ounce), powdered 
nux vomica (1 ounce); mix and divide into sixteen powders; give one powder in the feed three 
times a day. 

DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
PALPITATION 

Palpitation is a sudden, violent, tumultuous beating of the heart. In spasms 
of the diaphragm the symptoms produced are similar to those seen in true palpita- 
tion, but do not seem to have any connection with the beats of the heart. 

Causes — Excitement, overexertion, and a debilitated condition of the system 
may cause ^palpitation. It generally accompanies acute diseases of the heart. Spasm 
of the diaphragm is frequently seen in horses not accustomed to severe exercise, 
especially if exercised after feeding, and also in horses having digestive troubles. 

Syiiiptoius — The pulse is small and irregular, the respirations quickened, and the impulse 
of the heartbeat may be so violent as to shake the whole body. In some cases the impulse can 



324 DISEASES OF THE CIKCULATORY SYSTEM 

be heard when standing a short distance from the animal. In spasm of the diaphragm we observe 
in the costal region and flank abrupt shocks that are accompanied by a short, jerky respiration. 
The animal is uneasy and anxious, the appetite partly lost, and the pulse quickened. 

Treatment — We must keep the animal quiet and avoid any excitement. Palpitation gen- 
erally occurs as a symptom of disease ; it is necessary, then, to treat the disease. In spasm of the 
diaphragm a strict diet is sufficient to cure mild cases. Morphine (in 2 or 3 grain doses, hypo- 
dermically), if necessary, repeated at intervals of three or four hours, is very useful Laudanum in 
small doses may be given in linseed oil. 

PERICARDITIS 

{Inflammation of the Membrane Around the Heart) 
PERICARDITIS IN THE HORSE 

Causes — Pericarditis in the horse frequently develops as a condition in some 
of the infectious diseases (influenza, contagious pneumonia, etc.); it may result 
from rheumatism, cold, and wounds from sharp-pointed objects (nails, broken 
ribs, etc.) 

Symptoms — When pericarditis develops as a complication of influenza or pneumonia, the 
symptoms at the beginning are not always recognized, but soon become quite marked. Palpita- 
tion may be present. The pulse beats are quite rapid and small. If fluid collects around the 
heart, the beats are weak. The body temperature is elevated and the animal does not eat, is rest- 
less, will lie down for only a short time or not at all, and seems to suffer severe pain. If the disease 
continues for some time the horse becomes greatly emaciated. In most cases the disease runs a 
very acute course. The prognosis is very unfavorable. 

Treatment — The animal must have well ventilated, comfortable quarters and must be kept 
as quiet as possible. Heart tonics, alteratives, and bitter tonics must be given. Digitalis is the 
most useful heart tonic. Febrifuges may be necessary to control the temperature. Mustard 
drafts and blisters applied to the walls of the chest, just over the region of the heart, are very 
useful in easing the pain and combating the inflammation. If fluid collects around the heart it 
may be necessary to puncture the sac and remove it. 

PERICARDITIS IN CATTLE 

Causes — This disease in cattle is generally due to traumatic causes (injuries 
from sharp foreign bodies passing through the walls of the second stomach). Cold, 
rheumatism, and pleurisy also cause it. 

Symptomis — When due to foreign bodies the cardiac symptoms are associated with those 
accompanying chronic indigestion. The respirations are painful, and the animal soon becomes 
emaciated. The heart beats are at first strong and palpitating, but later become weak. The body 
temperature is high and the heart sounds abnormal. The expression is anxious and the animal 
does not lie down. The disease may pursue a long course. The prognosis is unfavorable. 

Treatment — It is not practical to treat cattle suffering from this disease. 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT 325 

ENDOCARDITIS 

{Inflammation of the Lining Membrane of the Heart) 

Cause — This disease is generally due to rheumatism or to the after-effects of 
influenza. 

Symptoms — The symptoms so nearly resemble those seen in pericarditis that it is hard to 
differentiate between the two in domestic animals. 

Treatment — This consists in treating the primary disease. The other treatment is along the 
same lines as in pericarditis. 

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT 

Examination of the Respiratory Organs in Disease — In the 

larger domestic animals examination of the respiratory tract can not be carried out 
so completely as in the smaller animals. This is especially true if the animal is 
fleshy. If it is restless, or if there is very much noise around the stable, it greatly 
interferes with our hearing the respiratory sounds. The greatest help in diagnos- 
ing and watching the progress of respiratory diseases is auscultation — application 
of the ear over some part of the respiratory tract and listening to the respiratory 
sounds. Auscultation can be learned only by examining healthy animals to deter- 
mine the normal sounds. Respiratory sounds can be heard over the nose, throat, 
windpipe, and a small portion of the lungs. Percussion is not so commonly used 
in diagnosing respiratory diseases as auscultation. The former consists in striking 
or tapping the walls of the chest, sinuses, etc., with the hand or fingers. Sometimes 
a hard, solid body is placed on the part and the taps delivered on this. If the per- 
cussion is over a hollow space or spongy tissue the sound is drum-like or resonant. 
If over a solid body, it is dull, or wanting. 

ACUTE CATARRH 

{Cold in the Head) 
CATARRH IN THE HORSE 

Catarrh is an inflammation of the raucous membrane lining the nasal cavities and 
usually extending to the membrane lining the sinuses of the head. Sore throat is 
very often a complication, the membrane of the pharynx and larynx becoming 
inflamed. 

Causes — This disease is much more common in tlie horse than in any of the 
other domestic animals. The most common causes are exposure to cold and wet 

22 



326 DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT 

and standing in a draft. Colds are common during changeable weather, especially 
if the animal is not cared for properly. Horses that are accustomed to warm 
stables are very apt to take cold if changed to a cold stable or improperly cared for 
after being driven or worked. Irritation to the mucous membrane from dust or 
smoke may sometimes cause it. The different infectious diseases (distemper, 
influenza, etc.) are veiy common causes. In sheep the larva (grub) of the bot-fly 
will cause catarrh. 

Symptoms — The early stage of the disease, unless accompanied by the general symptoms, 
will pass unnoticed by the owner. In mild cases the symptoms are not marked. The lining 
membrane of the nostrils is at first dry and red. In a few days a discharge appears. This is at 
first watery, but may become catarrhal, heavy, mucus-like, and turbid ; sometimes it is pus-like 
(purulent). The eyes are generally affected, the lining membrane of the lids looks red, and tears 
flow over the cheeks. The appetite may be impaired at first and the animal acts dull. Some- 
times fever is present, but this lasts only a short time unless the cold becomes complicated. 
When the throat is inflamed, the horse coughs and has some difiiculty in swallowing. It may 
breathe heavily. If the throat is manipulated it causes the animal to cough. The disease may 
terminate in about a week if the case is mild, or it may become chronic or cause the animal to be 
thick-winded. The throat occasionally remains sore for some time and the horse loses flesh. 

Treatment — Colds can be largely prevented if the proper precautions are used. Mild cases 
require nothing but good care and good quarters. Steaming the animal is useful during the early 
stages of the disease. Easily digested food, and, if the throat is so sore that the animal can not 
eat the ordinary feed, soft foods and slops should be given. A mild liniment may be rubbed on 
the throat and later, if the animal continues to cough, a cantharides blister (1 part powdered can- 
tharides to 8 parts vaseline) may be applied to the throat. The following mixture may be given: 
Tincture aconite (6 drams), tincture belladonna (1 ounce), syrup of squills (add enough to fill an 
8-ounce bottle); give one tablespoonful three times a day. Chlorate of potassium may be given in 
the drinking water. Iodide of potassium in dram doses in the feed three times a day is also use- 
ful. If the animal becomes run down in flesh, bitter tonics are indicated. In chronic catarrh it 
is sometimes necessary to trephine the animal and wash the sinuses with an antiseptic solution. 
The treatment is very much the same in the different species of domestic animals. 
CATARRH AND SORE THROAT IST STVINE 

Causes — Exposure, irritating gases, dust, and overcrowding in pens and 
around straw stacks are common causes. 

Symptoms — The symptoms and different stages of catarrh in pigs are much the same as 
in other animals. Sore throat usually occurs as a secondary disease. The symptoms are as fol- 
lows : Distressed and noisy breathing ; slightly swollen throat ; dry, hard cough ; difiiculty in 
swallowing ; fever and loss of appetite. The disease develops rapidly and as a rule terminates 
favorably in about four days. 

Treatment — Preventive precautions are important. The only treatment necessary is good 
care. 



BEOKCHITIS, HEMORRHAGE FROM THE LUNGS 327 

BRONCHITIS 

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes and may be either acute or 
chronic. When the smallest bronchial tubes ure involved, it is termed capillary 
bronchitis. Acute bronchitis is especially common in the horse, the chronic form 
being unusual. 

Causes — During the changeable seasons of the year this disease is frequently 
encountered. In general the causes are about- the same as in other respiratory 
diseases. Cold is the principal cause. Overheated, poorly ventilated stables, and 
irritating vaj)ors and gases are common causes. It may be associated with some of 
the contagious diseases. 

Syini>toins — The disease comes on very quickly, the fever is high, and the pulse and 
respirations rapid. The visible mucous membranes are red, the animal does not eat and acts 
stupid. Frequently chills are observed. If we place our ear along under the neck or at the side 
of the chest, we can hear the respiratory sounds, which are rough and louder than normal. The 
cough is at first dry, then moist. The general symptoms subside in a few days, generally in about 
a day, but unless the animal is cared for may become complicated. In the horse bronchitis is 
not a serious disease, but in other domestic animals is more apt to run a longer course and become 
complicated. If the causes continue to act the disease may then become chronic. In this form 
the secretions are abundant, whitish curdled matter being discharged. This discharge is more 
abundant when the horse is first exercised than at any other time. Symptoms of broken wind are 
usually noticed, the animal is weak and unfit for work, and runs down in flesh quite rapidly. 

Treatment — Good care and comfortable, well- ventilated quarters are all that are necessary 
in mild cases. The animal must be protected with warm blankets, and, if chilling, it is best to 
rub the legs and then bandage them with woolen bandages. A laxative and easily digested diet 
should be given. Fumigations with steam every four or five hours are useful in allaying the 
inflammation. Liquor ammonia acetate in 2-ounce doses eveiy three hours till the temperature 
falls to the normal, then three times a day for a few days, is very useful. If the animal coughs 
and has some difiiculty in swallowing, a liniment should be rubbed on the throat and the follow- 
ing mixture given: Tincture aconite (6 drams), tincture belladonna (1 ounce), syrup of squills 
(add enough to make 8 ounces) ; give one tablespoonful three times a day. Animals affected with 
chronic bronchitis should not be worked. We should guard against their taking cold, give them 
good nourishing foods, and tonics if necessary. The following mixture may be given : Fluid 
extract of gentian (2 ounces). Fowler's solution (6 ounces) ; mix and give half an ounce in the feed 
or as a drench three times a day. Alkalies and strong alteratives may be given. 

HEMORRHAGE FROM THE LUNGS 

Causes — Pulmonary hemorrhage is generally due to overexertion and excite- 
ment. It may occur if the animal is forced to do severe work or exercised when 
sick or exhausted. It may accompany severe pulmonary congestion and pneumonia. 



328 DISEASES OF THE EESPIRATORY TEACT 

Symptoms — The characteristic symptom is a discharge from the nostrils or mouth of red 
frothy blood. The discharge is usually intermittent and may occur in large quantities. The 
mucous membranes are generally pale, the animal trembles, looks anxious, is restless, coughs, and 
has a weak pulse and a high fever. Difficult breathing is a prominent symptom. Death may 
occur in a short time. 

Treatment — The animal must be kept as quiet as possible. The quarters should be com- 
fortable and well ventilated. By using good judgment in handling the animal serious pulmonary 
hemorrhage can be largely avoided. In severe cases treatment is of little use. 

CROUPOUS PNEUMONIA 

PNEUMONIA OF THE HORSE 

Causes — The causes are very much the same as in other respiratory affec- 
tions. During the cold weather it is more common than at any other time of the 
year. It may be due to contagious causes. If the animal is already suffering from 
some respiratory disease, such conditions as exposure to cold and wet, drafts in the 
stable, chilling suddenly after perspiring freely, washing with cold water, and neg- 
lecting the proper protection of clipped horses during cold weather, are very likely 
to cause pneumonia. 

Symptoms — When the disease first affects some other part of the respiratory tract and the 
lungs are affected secondarily, the earliest symptoms are confounded with those of the first disease 
and will vary according to the severity of the attack. At first we notice chilling, the temperature 
of the surface of the body is uneven, and -the animal has a high fever. The mucous membranes 
are reddened, the nostrils dilated, the respirations quickened and difiicult, the expired air hot, the 
appetite diminished, and the pulse accelerated. We may hear the animal cough, and generally a 
rustji discharge accumulates around the margins of the nostrils. The horse is inclined to be con- 
stipated and remains standing. If it lies down at all it is on the diseased side. In severe cases the 
expression is anxious, the respirations labored, the general symptoms aggravated and the horse 
stands with elbows turned out and the front feet spread apart. The course of pneumonia is typical, 
and unless it terminates fatally in the first stages, the periods of congestion, JiepaUzation (con- 
solidation), and resohUion will generally follow each other in a regular manner. Auscultation and 
percussion are valuable aids in diagnosing and watching the progress of the disease. During the 
period of congestion, which lasts about one day, one can hear sounds in the diseased lung tissue. 
Consolidation follows, the lung tissue becoming red or reddish-gray in color, and dense, like liver. 
In the latter stage of the hepatization the dissolution and absorption of the matter in the air cells 
begins. In this period, which lasts several days, the respiratory sounds are suppressed. In the 
last period, resolution, the exudates undergo liquefaction and are absorbed or expelled with cough- 
ing. The disease is at its height, as a rule, in a little less than a week, but the convalescent period 
may extend over several weeks. In subacute cases the symptoms are mild and may terminate 
favorably in a short time. In serious cases death by asphyxia occurs. In some cases abscesses 
may form in the lung tissue. The disease may be the cause of broken wind. 



pneumo:n^ia, pleurisy 329 

Treatment — Good quarters and careful nursing are highly important in treating pneumonia. 
A comfortable, well ventilated, and clean box stall, free from drafts, should be provided. As the 
animal can use only a limited portion of the lungs, the air that he breathes should be pure. The 
droppings and wet bedding should be removed from the stall several times a day The body of 
the horse during cold weather should be well protected with woolen blankets and the limbs ban- 
daged. A laxative, easily digested diet should be given. Such measures, if taken early in the 
disease, may greatly modify it. In the early stage, when the animal is chilling, alcoholic stimu- 
lants and quinine can be given. In cases where the temperature runs high the following febrifuge 
may be given : Acetanilid (1^ ounces), quinine sulphate (1 ounce), bicarbonate of soda (1 ounce), 
and powdered nux vomica ( i ounce); mix and divide into eight powders ; give one powder every 
three or four hours. In mild cases liquor ammonia acetate may be given, and when the heart 
action is weak, digitalis. In most cases mustard paste rubbed into the hair and covered with oil 
cloth or brown paper will give material relief. Ground mustard ( about 1 pound ) is mixed with 
enough warm water to form a paste and applied to the walls of the chest. In about half an hour 
it must be thoroughly washed off with hot water and a mild stimulating liniment applied to the 
skin. This should be repeated as often as necessary. In the latter convalescent stage iodide of 
potassium and bitter tonics should be given. 

PKEtJMONIA IN CATTLE 

Causes — This is not a common disease in cattle. It may follow other respira- 
tory diseases. The causes are very much the same as in the horse. Traumatic 
pneimi07iia may result from the food entering the trachea, as it sometimes does in 
paralytic diseases. 

Symptoms — The disease is usually subacute. The general symptoms are much the same 
as in the horse. The mouth is often dry and the tongue protruded to facilitate breathing. In 
severe cases the animal usually remains standing. In mild cases it often lies down. 

Treatment — The treatment does not differ much from that used in the horse. A cathartic 
of Epsom salts (1 pound) may be given in the early stage of the disease, and repeated if the animal 
becomes constipated. 

PLEURISY 

{Inflammation of the Pleura) 

Causes — Pleurisy is more common in the horse than in any of the other 
domestic animals. The causes are the same as in pneumonia. In many cases it is 
due to exposure and cold (rheumatismal form). It frequently develops as a compli- 
cation of pneumonia. , 

Symptoms — Pleurisy generally starts with chills. The body temperature is quite high; 
the pulse accelerated and the respirations quick, labored, and abdominal, the abdominal muscles 
forming a ridge along the lower ends of the ribs. The animal does not stand still as in pneu- 
monia, but changes its position occasionally, its movements in many cases being accompanied by 
a grunt. Pressure on the walls of the chest causes pain and the animal rarely lies down. The 



330 DISEASES OF THE NEEVOUS SYSTEM 

cough is short and painful. The appetite is impaired or absent and the patient is weak. By 
auscultation we recognize friction sounds. In a day or two effusion takes place in the pleural 
cavities and the pain is greatly relieved, but this relief is only temporary in most cases. If the 
fluid collects in large quantities there is pressure on the heart and lungs, the pulse is weak, the 
respirations labored, and the countenance has a haggard appearance. Dropsical swellings are 
noticed beneath the breast and abdomen and there is an absence of respiratory sounds over the 
lower region of the chest; instead a splashing gurgling sound may be heard. Suffocation may 
take place ; the animal moves unsteadily, and finally dies. In favorable cases improvement begins 
in from four days to a week, the appetite returning, the effusion gradually disappearing, and the 
respirations becoming normal. Convalescence takes place very slowly. In severe cases the animal 
may continue weak and may have defective wind. 

Treatment — As in pneumonia, careful nursing and good quarters are important in the treat- 
ment of pleurisy. Mustard drafts should be applied to the walls of the chest and febrifuges given 
to reduce the fever. When the effusion occurs in the chest cavity we should give drugs that will 
stimulate the action of the heart and help in getting rid of the effusion. Such drugs as iodide of 
potassium, or acetate of potassivim in combination with digitalis, are especially valuable for this 
purpose. Nitrate of potassium can be given in the drinking water. 

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
CONGESTION AND ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN 

Cciuses — Congestion of the brain is more frequent in the horse than in any 
of the other domestic animals. In this disease tlie blood-vessels of the brain be- 
come engorged with blood. It may be either active or passive. Horses that are 
overfed and receive too little exercise are predisposed to it. It may be due to 
changing stables, shipping in poorly ventilated cars, poorly ventilated stables, im- 
proper feeding and foods hard to digest, excitement and excessive exertion. Con- 
gestion may occur in some of the contagious diseases and is sometimes caused by 
organic heart troubles. Extremely fat animals having short, thick necks are said 
to be predisposed to it. Passive congestion of the brain may be due to a narrow 
collar pressing on the jugular vein and obsti'ucting the flow of blood from the brain. 
Pressure on the jugular vein from other causes may cause the same condition. 

Anemia of the brain is due to an insufficient amount of blood in the brain and 
is caused by abundant hemorrhage, obstruction of blood going to the brain, and 
cardiac weakness. 

Symptoins — The congestion in most cases comes on very suddenly, in others it develops 
slowly. The disease may manifest itself as soon as the animal is moved out of the stall, or it may 
com.e on while it is feeding. In the latter case, the horse stops suddenly, becomes restless, and later 
quite violent. The pulse is quick and hard, the animal is nervous, respirations hurried, and eyes 



INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN 331 

staring. It braces itself, raves, or staggers and falls. It may regain its feet or have convulsions 
and pass into a comatose condition. Death may occur in a very short time. We will sometimes 
tiiid the animal with its fore feet in the manger, or pressing the head hard against objects. 
Grinding the teeth, neighing, and shaking the head are some of the other symptoms that may be 
seen in this disease. Cattle leave the feed suddenly, are restless and excited, bellow, rotate the 
eyes in their sockets, butt the head against objects, and, if they fall, have convulsions. Coma is 
manifested by the animal becoming sleepy, stupid, not eating, without expression in the face, 
taking unusual positions, and staggering in its gait. It may take a recumbent position and appear 
as if dead. In cerebral anemia the gait is staggering and the pulse weak. The same symptoms 
as described in congestion may be manifested. In some cases congestion of the brain leads to an 
inflammation of the organ. Apoplexy due to rupture of capillaries may occur, or it may lead to 
vertigo or "staggers." 

Treatment — Preventive treatment is very important in this disease. Bleeding at the begin- 
ning will give good results. Cold applications to the head also are useful. A cathartic of linseed 
oil should be given. In anemia we must give stimulants. Recovery from the attack should be 
followed for at least a few days by a careful diet and rest. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES 

{Encephalitu) 

Causes — These are very much the same as in congestion of the brain. 
Unhygienic conditions, as unsanitary and poorly ventilated stables, are common 
causes. It is more common in the spring and fall than at any other time of the 
year. It is sometimes seen in acute infectious diseases. Feeding too rich or con- 
sti])ating a diet, overfeeding, changes in diet, changes in climate, high temperature, 
excessive exertion, excitement, and injuries to the head may cause it. 

Syiuptoiiis — The symptoms vary in different individuals, but in a general way are the 
same, and at the beginning similar to those seen in congestion of the brain. The animal is 
extremely nervous at first, is very sensitive to sounds, and the eyes are staring. The pupil of the 
eye is dilated, the pulse quick and hard, and the respirations more rapid than normal. The body 
temperature is elevated. In some cases the attack comes on so quickly that these symptoms are 
not noticed. The gait is uncertain, the animal does violence to itself and goes through uncontrol- 
lable movements. Recovery may take place gradually, or a partial paralysis may follow. Some- 
times the animal becomes comatose. The disease may run a course of a week or more to a fatal 
termination, or death may be very sudden. The prognosis is very unfavorable. 

Excitement is the most prominent symptom in cattle. They bellow, eyes are prominent, they 
tremble, shake the head, butt with the horns, climb into manger, and run against objects. Saliva 
dribbles from the mouth. The disease will very often pursue a very rapid course. The patient 
may live for several days and show the usual symptoms of inflammation of the brain. The prog- 
nosis in cattle is even more unfavorable than in horses. 

Treatment — The preventive treatment is the same as in congestion of the brain. When the 
animal becomes diseased it must have quiet, well- ventilated quarters and be made as comfortable 



332 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

as possible. If partly paralyzed slings can be used to good advantage. If violent we should try 
to prevent its injuring itself. Bleeding, as in congestion, is useful during the early stages. The 
following ball may be given to the horse : Powdered aloes (6 drams), powdered ginger (1 dram), 
and extract of belladonna (I dram). Cattle should receive full doses of Glauber's salts. If necessary 
a cathartic should be given often enough to keep the bowels open. The diet should be light and 
easily digested. Blisters may be applied along the side of the neck and to the poll of the head. 
If the weather is cold the animal must be protected and made comfortable. Large doses of 
powdered nux vomica or strychnine should be given if paralysis is present. 

CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS 

IN THE HORSE 

Spasm of the neck, as this disease is sometimes called, is an inflammation of the 
membranes covering the brain and the anterior part of the spinal cord. It is more 
common in horses and sheep than in any of the other domestic animals and may 
occur in isolated cases, but usually as an enzoStic disease in a certain stable or 
country district. 

Causes — This disease has been attributed to a variety of different causes. 
Poorly ventilated, unsanitary stables, impure food and water, and undrained lands 
are said to cause it. As in human pathology, the cause is said to be a specific one 
and the history of many outbreaks seems to point to this as a fact. 

SyinptoiilS — In its acute and rapidly fatal form it is difficult to distinguish this disease from 
inflammation of the brain. The animal is at first weak, staggers, swallows with difficulty, saliva 
dribbles from the mouth and there are twitching and cramps of the different sets of muscles. The 
animal is soon unable to stand, and becomes violent and delirious. The temperature may be high 
in some cases and the pulse small and accelerated. When the symptoms come on gradually we 
notice a weakness or partial paralysis of the different sets of muscles. The animal is unable to 
switch its tail, becomes sleepy or comatose, snores, is delirious, and has cramps of the muscles of 
the neck and jaw. Sometime^ death takes place without the development of violent symptoms, 
the animal passing Ilio a deep sleep. The duration of the disease is from one to fifteen days. The 
prognosis is very unfavorable. 

Treatment — If the disease appears as an enzootic in a stable, the animals should be removed 
to other quarters and the stable cleaned and disinfected. If in an unsanitary condition, this should 
be remedied. A change in the food and water supply is to be recommended. Treatment is seldom 
followed by success. The medicinal treatment is similar to that used in inflammation of the brain. 

CEREBRO-SPINAIi MENINGITIS IN SHEEP 

The symptoms are generally acute. The sheep are very sensitive ; weak ; saliva 
dribbles from the mouth; they fall to the ground; the shoulders are bent upward 
and backward ; they grind the teeth, and have spasms and convulsions. Deatli may 



ECZEMATOUS DISEASES 333 

take place in a short time. In mild cases the disease may persist for a few weeks. 
The prognosis is unfavorable. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE SPINAL CORD AND ITS COVERINGS 

{Myelitis and Spinal Meningitis) 
Causes — Blows and injuries to the back, fracture of the spine, exhaustion, 
and exposure are common causes. It may occur in such diseases as blood poisoning, 
influenza, and rheumatism. 

Symptoms — The disease may be ushered ia with a chill and the temperature may be 
higher than normal. The gait is stiff and back rigid ; the animal may stagger, fall, and become 
partially or wholly paralyzed. The animal seems to suffer pain and is sometimes extremely sensi- 
tive. Small animals drag their hind parts, large animals are very often unable to stand at all and 
remain in a recumbent position. The disease is generally chronic, and the animal loses control of 
its hind parts. 

Treatment — The animal should be given comfortable quarters and kept as free from excite- 
ment as possible. If it will eat, easily digested food should be given. If constipated a cathartic 
must be administered. Cold applications along the spine are recommended. The paralysis can 
be combated with nux vomica or strychnine. Chronic cases should be destroyed. 

ECZEMATOUS DISEASES 
PRICKLY HEAT 

(Heat Pimples, Summer Eruption) 

Tliis is an eruption of the skin and occurs in nearly all domestic animals, and 
generally during the warm weather. 

Causes — Young and thin-skinned animals at the time of shedding are espe- 
cially predisposed to this affection. Local irritation to the skin from sweat, harness, 
and dirt is the common cause. Heating food, high feeding, and diseases of the 
digestive tract are the internal causes. Heat pimples sometimes occur during the 
course of strangles. 

Symptoms — Eruption is usually limited to the region of the neck, withers, back, thighs, 
and shoulders, but it may invade most of the surface of the body. At the beginning the little 
elevations or papules may be found by passing the hand over the surface of the skin. The papule 
vary in size and may be as large as a pea. In some cases they become confluent and cover quite an 
area of the skin. They soon dry and harden and the hair becomes erect Scabs or crusts form and 
adhere to the hair, and then drop out, carrying the hair along with them. Spots denuded of hair 
then remain. If the inflammation has not been severe this is replaced with hair of the same color. 
It is sometimes accompanied by a severe itching. 

Treatment — When due to high feeding or overheating food the diet should be corrected. 
Diseases of the digestive tract should be treated, and if the papules occur in poorly cared for horses 



334 ECZEMATOUS DISEASES 

they should be given shelter, a good diet, and groomed every day. As an alterative, Fowler's 
solution (liquor arsenitis) may be given in teaspoonful or tablespoonful doses in the hoi'se's feed 
three times a day. Two or three weeks is generally a long enough period to give it. Horses in 
high condition should be given two or three doses of Glauber's salts {i pound at a dose) at intervals 
of three or four days. Unthrifty animals should be given bitter tonics and the skin thoroughly 
washed with a 2 per cent water solution of a creolin preparation. This should be repeated if 
necessary. 

URTICARIA 

This is an eruption of flattened, well-defined nodules, or elevations in the skin, 
caused by an infiltration of the deeper layers of the skin with fluid from the capil- 
laries. 

Causes — Urticaria is more common in the spring and fall than at any other 
time of the year and is frequently seen in fat, plethoric animals or those that are 
rapidly gaining in flesh. Sudden changes in the weather or food and abrupt chilling 
of the skin may cause it. It may occur in animals having digestive troubles. Irrita- 
tion to the skin from the bites of insects will cause it. Urticaria is not attended as 
a rule by any marked symptoms. 

Treatment — This consists in giving a cathartic of powdered aloes or Glauber's salts, following 
this for a week or more with artificial Carlsbad salts in the feed. 

SCRATCHES ON THE HORSE 

{Cracked Heel) 

This is a7i eczema of the flexor surfaces of the limbs ; its most common seat is 
the back part of the pasterns, in the hollow of the heel. 

Causes — The causes are overfeeding, dirty stables, irritation from urine, 
manure, wind, dust, cold, snow, and freezing mud. Any condition leading to the 
filling of the limbs may cause it. 

Symptoms — At first the part is hot, swollen, and tender and the animal may go lame. The 
part soon becomes moist, cracks from across its surface, and the skin becomes thick and rigid. 
In some cases portions of the skin become gangrenous and drop off. Some animals are predis- 
posed to scratches. 

Treatment — The first step is, if possible, to remove the cause. In overfed animals it is well 
to give a cathartic (Glauber's salts) and feed a laxative, easily digested diet. It is best in the ma- 
jority of cases to rest the animal. The part must be kept as clean as possible. The following 
lotion may be applied to the part twice a day: Sulphate of zinc (f part), acetate of lead (1 part), 
water (30 parts), or, the following ointment maybe used : Oxide of zinc (1 part), vaseline (8 parts); 
this may be applied once or twice a day. Cases that do not respond to this treatment may be 
washed with a 1 to 1,000 water solution of corrosive sublimate once a day, and a flaxseed poultice 
may be applied every evening, until improvement begins. 



DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTOE ORGANS 335 

GREASE IN THE HORSE 

This disease affects the extremities of horses and is due to a parasitic fungus. 
One can distinguish it from scratches by the disagreeable odor, the discharge, and 
the formation of thick fokls and crevices in the skin, and red, raw granulation 
("grapes"). It is generally due to filthy stables and is treated by washing the 
parts with a strong water solution of creolin or other antiseptic. When hot and 
tender a poultice may be applied. It is necessary to clean and disinfect the floors of 
the stable. 

DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTOR ORGANS 
MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM 

Causes — This disease is more common in the horse than in any of the other 
domestic animals. Cold seems to be the exciting cause. It maybe caused by cold, 
damp, chilly weather ; drafts in the stable ; cold, damp stables ; damp pastures or 
yards ; sudden chilling when the animal is heated, and allowing it to stand without 
blanketing in cold weather. A first attack always predisposes an animal to a 
second. 

Symptoms — The disease is usually local in the horse. In ruminants it may be generalized. 
The regions most commonly affected are the muscles of the shoulder and back. The disease may 
shift from one part to another. When generalized the animal moves about and gets up with great 
difficulty, and the affected muscles are sore and sensitive. In these cases general symptoms are 
present. When the rheumatism is located in the muscles of the shoulder the limbs are not moved 
freely, there is a tendency to step short with the lame member and to drag the toe. When the 
muscles of the back are affected there is great difficulty in getting up and down and cattle fre- 
quently take the recumbent position. In ruminants it is usually complicated with the articular 
form. In localized rheumatism the prognosis is favorable. In order to prevent its recurrence the 
exciting causes must be removed. 

Treatment — When the disease is localized the principal treatment is rubbing the part for 
several minutes with the hand every day and the application of some mild liniment. The follow- 
ing liniment may be used : Spirits of camphor (10 parts), turpentine (3 parts). The following 
mixture may be used internally : Salicylate of soda (2 ounces), fluid extract of gentian (1 ounce), 
and water (enough to make an 8-ounce mixture); half an ounce can be given three times a day to 
horses and cattle. A febrifuge should also be given in the generalized form. Warm, comfortable 
quarters must be provided and the animal should not be driven or worked until the lameness is 
gone. 

ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM 

Causes — Cold and dampness seem to be the predisposing factors in this as well 
as in muscular rheumatism. It is very probable that the cause is of an infectious 
nature. 



336 DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTOE ORGANS 

Symptoms — Articular rheumatism is a common form in cattle. It appears very abruptly 
and is accompanied by certain general symptoms. One or more of the articulations of the extrem- 
ities becomes greatly enlarged in a very short time. The animal is lame, or stiff, feverish, and in 
severe pain. Where several of the articulations are involved the disease may last for several 
months, the animal becoming badly emaciated. Sometimes the lameness disappears, but the 
enlargement is permanent. The prognosis is very unfavorable. 

Treatment — This is similar to that used in the muscular form. Blisters may be applied to 
the enlarged joints. 

AZOTURIA 

{Monday Morning Disease) 

Azoturia occurs solely in solipeds and is especially common at certain seasons of 
the year. Plethoric horses and mules seem to be predisposed to it. In work ani- 
mals it usually follows a short rest. It rarely occurs when the animal is running 
in the pasture or while standing in the stall. 

Causes — Some investigators attribute the disease to irritation of the muscles 
from cold, and classify it among rheumatismal diseases. The cause advanced by 
most American veterinarians is an excess of proteid matter in the system, due to 
feeding the animal a strong ration during rest following a period of regular work. 
When suddenly put to work, this material, along with poisonous substances from 
the portal circulation, is thrown onto the system. 

Syniptoms — When the animal is put to work it is usually full of life ; suddenly it begins 
to lag, goes lame, usually in the hind limbs, trembles, breaks out in a sweat, looks around toward 
the flanks, staggers, knuckles over in the hind pasterns, and may fall down and be unable to get 
up. The expression is anxious and the animal shows evidence of suffering severe pain. The 
symptoms may become manifest when the horse is first led out of his stall, or when first turned 
in the pasture. The muscles of the fore quarters are sometimes affected, but it is usually the 
heavy muscles of the hind quarters that are involved. The respirations and pulse are quickened 
and the affected muscles are hard, sensitive, and swollen. If the animal goes down it may be 
quite restless and have spasms. The urine is dark or coffee-colored. In most cases it is necessary 
to remove the urine, as the animal is unable to pass it. The paralytic symptoms may continue for 
several days and the animal be quite violent. In this class of cases the prognosis is not favorable. 
In the mild form, paralytic symptoms are not manifested and recovery takes place in a very short 
time. Atrophy of the affected muscles may follow. One attack predisposes the animal to a second. 

Treatment — The curative treatment of azoturia is frequently unsatisfactory. The pre- 
ventive treatment will give better results than the medicinal. At the seasons of the year when 
the animal is being worked steadily, if rested, the ration must be reduced. Horses should have 
access to plenty of salt and be watered regularly. As soon as the first symptoms of the disease 
become manifest, we must stop working the animal, blanket it if necessary, and allow it to stand 
until it is in fit condition to go to the stable. This precaution will often prevent the disease 
from becoming serious. Plenty of bedding and a good box stall are best for the sick animal. 



AZOTUKIA, FOUNDER 337 

especially if unable to get up. If the urine has not been passed it must be removed, and if the 
horse-is violent it should be given a sedative ; fluid extract of gelsemium (2 to 4 drams) may be 
given every few hours if necessary. Nitrate of potassium (i ounce) may be given in a ball or in 
the drinking water three times a day. The animal should be encouraged to drink plenty of water. 
To physic it, raw linseed oil may be given. If the horse will eat, it must be fed nothing but bran 
mashes for a few days. The paralytic symptoms must be combated with tincture nux vomica 
(2 drams) three times a day, or strychnine, given hypodermically. Unless the patient can stand 
fairly well, it is useless to keep it in slings. We must make the patient as comfortable as possible, 
keep the bed dry and turn it over two or three times a day. Azoturia patients often require very 
careful nursing. 

FOUNDER 

(Laminitis) 

Laminitis is an inflammation of the sensitive and very vascular laminas of the 
foot. This structure lies within the horny walls of the foot ; when the laminae 
become inflamed the walls do not yield to the swelling and, hence, cause severe 
pressure on these very sensitive tissues. 

Causes — Laminitis may be due to various causes. The most common are: 
Overfeeding, feeding grain and allowing the horse to drink large quantities of 
water when in an overheated condition; heavy foods as wheat, rye, etc., especially 
if animal is not accustomed to it ; chilling of the body by cold winds ; overexertion, 
and exhaustion. Laminitis may be associated with other diseases, as colic, influenza, 
rheumatism, or pneumonia. 

Symptoms — The disease appears suddenly, usually in the front feet, rarely in all four feet. 
The pain is generally severe and the animal will try to avoid throwing weight on the affected 
feet. To avoid doing this, the front limbs are thrust well forward, moved very rapidly, and the 
hind limbs placed well under the body and most of the weight thrown on them. The animal may 
refuse to stand on his feet at all, or frequently they remain standing nearly all the time in order 
to avoid the pain caused by lying down and getting up again. The general symptoms are rapid, 
hard pulse, accelerated respirations, high body temperatui'e and loss of appetite. The affected feet 
are hot, dry, and very sensitive to pressure. In mild cases the sensitive condition of the feet and 
the peculiarity of the gait, which is especially noticed when the animal is first moved or when 
turned, are about the only symptoms manifested. With the proper attention the disease usually 
terminates favorably in from four days to a week. When the inflammation becomes chronic, which 
it sometimes does, changes may occur in the shape and in the nutrition to the foot and the animal 
goes lame. One attack of laminitis will predispose the animal to a second. 

Treatment — The preventive treatment consists in avoiding conditions that may cause the 
disease. If the horse should become affected, it must have a comfortable stall, free from drafts, 
and deeply bedded with straw. In cold weather the body should be covered with heavy blankets ; 
in warm weather a light stable blanket is suflScient ; the stall should be darkened, the animal 
protected from flies, and kept as quiet as possible. It is best to -remove the shoes. Large flaxseed 



338 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

poultices may be applied to the feet and renewed once or twice a day. Nitrate of potassium may 
be given in from 2 to 4 ounce doses three times a day in a ball or drench. Hot or cold water 
fomentations are sometimes preferred to poultices ; if used they must be kept up continually until 
the inflammation subsides. In mild cases, standing the animal in a running stream will stop the 
inflammation. When convalescence begins the shoes should be replaced. Iodide of potassium (in 
dram or 2 dram doses) in the feed is useful in this stage. A light diet should be given, a blister 
applied to the coronet, and in a few days the animal may be turned out to pasture. In chronic 
cases the feet may need careful attention. In shoeing it is best to raise the heel and slightly shorten 
the toe. 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

STRANGLES 

{Colt Distemper) 

Strangles is an acute infectious disease associated with a catarrhal condition 
of the air passages and suppuration of the lymphatic glands in the region of the 
throat. It is most common in young horses, as one attack confers considerable 
immunity for the future. 

Causes — The specific cause is a germ, the infection taking place by bringing 
a susceptible animal in contact with the diseased one, or allowing it to run in the 
same pasture or stable. When the disease is once introduced into a stable of horses, 
it will affect every susceptible animal. The predisposing causes are cold and sudden 
changes in the weather ; for this reason the disease is more common during the cold, 
changeable seasons than at any other time in the year. The period of incubation 
(the time between the exposure and the development of the first syniptoms) is from 
four to eight days. 

Syniptoms — At the beginning of the attack the body temperature is elevated several 
degrees and the appetite is partially lost. The respirations and pulse may be accelerated and the 
animal appears quite stupid. The nasal mucous membranes are at first red and dry ; the animal 
sneezes and frequently coughs. The secretory stage soon begins, the secretions are first watery, 
but become heavy, purulent, and abundant, especially in young horses. The glands in the region 
of the jaw become hot, swollen, and painful ; the animal may be unable to eat and the respirations 
are difficult. In a few days the abscesses that form will bi-eak, sometimes on the inside of the 
throat, and the symptoms may then become easier and the temperature fall to about normal. If 
other abscesses form the temperature may again rise. The disease may be accompanied by an 
eruption of nodules or vesicles on the skin. In old horses the symptoms are generally mild. In 
severe cases abscesses mny form in different parts of the body and the animal becomes weak and 
emaciated and finally dies. 

Treatment — The disease will run a definite course and can not be abated. A comfortable 
stall, nourishing feed, and good care constitute the principal part of the treatment. When the 
abscesses mature they must be opened and the cavity washed out with some antiseptic solution. 



IXFLUENZA 339 

Steaming the animal will modify the inflammation of the mucous membranes. If the abscesses 
are tardy in forming or the glands remain thickened, a blistering ointment (powdered cantharides 
1 part, vaseline 8 parts) may be applied to the region. If necessary, bitter tonics may be admin- 
istered, or artificial Carlsbad salts given in the feed. We should avoid exposing susceptible 
animals to the disease. 

INFLUENZA 

{Pink-eye, Catarrhal Fever) 

INFLUENZA IN THE HORSE 

This is a well-known infections disease of the horse, and generally rages as an 
epidemic in certain years. One of the most serious epidemics in this country was 
in the early part of the 70's, when the disease received the name of "pink-eye." 
The last epidemic in this country was in 1900. The disease is present at all times 
in the horse centers of the country. 

Causes — The cause of the disease is a specific one, but the exact nature of 
the germ is not known. When an epidemic appears in a country it is first present 
in the large cities, whence it is scattered to the outlying districts. The germs are 
present in the breath, nasal secretions, and the excreta. Close jiroximity to an 
affected animal is not necessary in spreading the disease, as it may be carried by 
the harness, blankets, etc., or by the air. The predisposing causes ai'e cold, 
exposure, and changes in climate. The interval between exposure to the disease 
and its development is from four days to a week. 

Sy iiiptoiiis — At the beginning of the disease the temperature is high, the appetite is partially 
or entirely lost and the animal is greatly depressed. The horse holds his head down and acts 
sleepy. In different epidemics certain organs are more likely to be involved than others, so that 
the symptoms may differ. The respiratory mucous membranes are generally affected by a catarrhal 
inflammation, the respirations are quickened, and the animal coughs. The submaxillary glands 
may become swollen and the influenza be complicated by a pneumonia, pleurisy, or bronchitis. 
The eyes are frequently affected, the lids are swollen, hot, and painful and are kept closed. The 
secretions are at first watery, but may become purulent and the cornea and deeper tissues of the 
eye become inflamed. The digestive tract is commonly affected, the animal yawns, the lining 
membrane of the mouth is hot and dry. At the beginning colicky pains are sometimes present. 
The animal is sometimes constipated or may have a diarrhea. The legs and sheath usually become 
swollen or filled, this disappearing when the animal begins to improve. Complications frequently 
occur in influenza. The death rate is higher at the beginning of an epidemic than at the close. 
But a small proportion of the cases will prove fatal. 

Treatment — When the disease is present in a locality we should avoid exposing susceptible 
animals to it. Horses that are bought in the market should be kept apart from the other horses 
for a week or two. When influenza is present in a stable the stalls, mangers, floors, and walls 
should be cleaned and disinfected. The treatment required for sick animals is largely good 



340 IXFECTIOUS DISEASES 

nursing and care. A comfortable, clean, and well ventilated stall should be provided and the 
animal fed a laxative and easily digested diet. If the eyes are affected the stall must be darkened 
and the following lotion injected into the eye . Zinc sulphate (8 grains), boric acid (13 grains), 
and distilled water (2 ounces). In most cases this is all the treatment required. If the stable is 
cold the horse must be well blanketed and bandages rolled on the limbs as high as the knees. 
In the catarrhal form inhalation of steam is very beneficial. Stimulants are indicated when the 
animal is greatly depressed. We may be able, by careful nursing at the beginning, to shorten 
the course of the disease. Colicky symptoms can be treated with tincture of opium (from 2 to 
4 drams in a little linseed oil every three or four hours). If the horse is constipated a cathartic of 
linseed oil (1 pint) can be given.- Complications are common even in mild cases. 

INFIuUENZA IN CATTLE 

This disease resembles influenza in the horse and is apparently due to a specific 
cause. It generally occurs during the cold, changeable seasons and in cattle that 
are not provided with proper shelter. It usually afl'ects several cattle in the herd 
and in a considerable proportion of cases proves fatal. 

Symptoms — The respiratory passages are primarily affected. At the beginning the tem- 
perature is high, the animal is depressed and ceases to eat or ruminate. In milch cows there 
is a falling off in the milk. We may frequently^hear the animal grinding its teeth. Complica- 
tions are common and if the disease continues for several weeks the animal becomes weak and 
emaciated. It may terminate fatally in a few days by becoming complicated with congestion of 
the brain. 

Treatment — Prevention is the principal treatment and consists in providing good quarters 
for the herd and isolating the sick animals. Inhalations of steam are useful in helping to allay the 
inflammation in the respiratory membranes. Mild liniments should be applied to the throat. The 
following mixture may be given : Tincture of aconite (1 ounce), tincture of belladonna (4 ounces), 
and water (enough to make an 8-ounce mixture) ; half an ounce may be given three times a day. 
When the animal becomes weak, stimulants may be given. 

LOCKJAW 

( Tetanus ) 

This is an infectious disease and is caused by a small club-shaped germ. This 
organism is very common in some localities and is present in the soil, dust, and 
stable litter. This disease occurs in all domestic animals excepting the dog, and 
is more common in warm than in cold countries. 

Causes— The disease is due to the germs entering the body by way of a 
wound, generally a punctured wound, as the conditions here are very favorable for 
its development. In some cases the wound is so small that it is not noticed and 
the symptoms may manifest themselves after the wound has healed. Infection 
may take place through some wound in the mucous membrane lining the digestive 



LOCKJAW, BLOOD POISONING 341 

tract. It may follow a surgical operation. The period of incubation varies from 
a few days to a few weeks. 

Symptoms — The first symptom observed is a stiffness of the muscles. Those of the neck, 
back, and loins are affected at first, and when pressed on with the fingers feel hard and rigid. In 
breathing the ribs show less movement than normal, the head is held higher than usual and the 
ears are stiff or pricked, the nostrils dilated, the lips rigid or drawn back, the eyes retracted, and 
the third eyelid protrudes over a portion of it. The tail is slightly elevated. In most cases the 
muscles of mastication and swallowing are involved and the animal is unable to open its mouth 
and swallows with difliculty. It is usually very nervous and sensitive to noises. The gait is stiff 
and it stands with the limbs spread out so as to increase the base of support. Constipation usually 
occurs and the abdomen is tucked up. When the disease is about to terminate fatally the animal 
falls down, the pulse is quick and small, it breathes with difliculty, sweats profusely, the body 
temperature may be elevated, it struggles and has spasms. The disease may take on a subacute 
form with the symptoms mild. When the diet is not looked after carefully colic may occur as a 
complication. When recovery begins the muscles gradually relax. The course of the disease 
will vary. In the acute form it may terminate fatally in from one to three days. In the subacute 
form it may last several weeks. In sheep the disease is very acute. 

Treatment — The preventive treatment consists in the careful disinfection of wounds, 
especially punctured wounds, and observing the proper antiseptic precautions in the various sur- 
gical operations. In countries where tetanus is a common disease as a result of wounds, tetanus 
autitoxine should be used as a preventive. The sick animal should have a comfortable box stall 
where it may be least annoyed by the noises about the stable. If the animal can eat, easily 
digested food should be given and but little roughage allowed. If the jaws are set, gruels can 
sometimes be given. A fresh pail of water must be left in the stall. We must avoid, so far as 
possible, annoying the animal with drenches. One may give bromide of potassium (1 dram every 
three or four hours), or chloral hydrate (2 drams every three hours) in the drinking water or feed. 
Fluid extract of gelsemium or cannabis indica may be given in half ounce doses three times a day. 
Hypodermic injections of a water solution of carbolic acid may also be used. Tetanus antitoxine 
is sometimes used as a curative agent. 

BLOOD POISONING 

{PycBinia and Septicmmia) 

In surgery, simple septicaemia and pytemia are called blood poisoning. This 

is an infectious disease and may be due to several different kinds of organisms 

that gain entrance to the system by way of an extensive or badly cared for wound. 

The germs of pyaemia may, if conditions are favorable, give rise to abscesses in 

different parts of the body. In septicaemia the pathological symptoms may be 

due to the poisons elaborated by the germs. In most cases the two diseases exist 

together. 

Symptoms — The body temperature is high, the animal acts stupid and sleepy and does 
23 



342 INFEGTIOUS DISEASES 

not eat. The pulse may be small and weak. Marked nervous disturbances may be pi'esent. The 
local lesions are extensive doughy swellings and the wound may slough considerably and have a 
characteristic disagreeable, sweetish odor. If the injury is on the extremities the animal is very 
lame. The blood is thin, coagulates imperfectly and changes in color. Toward the latter stage 
of the disease the swelling may disappear quite rapidly. Fatalities are much more frequent some 
years than others. 

Treatment — Preventive treatment consists in thoroughly cleansing and disinfecting all 
wounds and, if necessary (if the bottom of the wound is lower than its mouth), making an opening 
at the lowest point in order that the secretions from the cut surfaces may have an opportunity to 
escape. It is usually best not to close extensive lacerated wounds with sutures. Salicylate of 
soda or quinine may be given (in 1 or 2-dram doses) three times a day. Calomel may be given (in 
dram doses) once a day. 

BLACK LEG 

{Symptomatic Anthrax) 

This is a rapidly fatal, infectious disease of young cattle, and is characterized 
by external swellings that give a crackling sound when pressed on with the fingers. 
The most common age at which young cattle are affected is around six months. 
Cattle are seldom affected after they reach the age of four years. One attack 
confers immunity to the animal. 

Cause — Black leg is caused by a specific germ, rod-shaped and called a 
bacillus. It has the power of forming spores which enable it to withstand any 
ordinary condition, and therefore prolong the life of the germ. It is especially 
common on lowlands or in seasons that are warm and moist. When the disease 
once develops among the cattle grazing in a pasture it is apt to again develop in 
following years if the season is a favorable one. The germ enters the body by way 
of a wound in the skin or the mucous membrane of the mouth or intestines. The 
period of incubation for this disease is from one to five days. 

Symptoms — The disease runs a very short course and is attended by a very high mor- 
tality. The fever is high, there is a loss bf appetite, the animal becomes stupid, and exhaustion 
rapidly follows. Swellings may develop on different parts of the body. Their outline is very 
distinct and the swelling seldom goes below the knee or hock. The animal is lame in the affected 
quarter. At first these swellings are very sensitive, but become cold, insensitive, and gangrenous 
toward their centers, and when cut into are dark colored and contain gas. The blood is black, 
tarry, and slow to coagulate readily. 

Treatment — Medicinal treatment is of little benefit. Prevention is the only satisfactory 
treatment. In localities where the disease is common, the black leg vaccine should be used on all 
the younger animals each yeai'. "When this is practiced, the loss is insignificant. Dead animals 
should be'burned, or buried so deeply with unslaked lime that there will be no chance of infec- 
tion from the cadaver. 



ANTHRAX 343 

ANTHRAX 

( Charbon) 

This is an infectious disease that, no doubt, has existed for many centuries and 
is very widely distributed. It may occur in any part of this country, but it is only 
in the soutliern section of the United States (lower Mississippi Valley) that it occurs 
from year to year. The disease is more apt to occur in sheep and cattle than in 
any of the other domestic animals. 

Cause — Anthrax is caused by a rod-shaped germ which in the presence of 
oxygen forms spores. It is called the Bacillus anthracis, and sometimes several are 
arranged together so as to form chains. The germ itself is readily destroyed, but 
the spores are highly resistant to outside conditions. The organisms gain entrance 
to the body by the intestinal tract, the skin, and the lungs and air passages. The 
most common route is by way of the intestines, the animal becoming affected by 
eating forage grown on infected fields, the spores on the surface of the ground 
becoming attached to the grass or grain; if by way of the skin, the germ enters 
through a wound or bites of insects ; if by way of the lungs, it is due to the inhala- 
tion of dust containing spores. Man may become affected by handling the carcasses 
of animals that have died from this disease. 

Syniptoiiis — This disease may take on several forms. In the apoplectic form the symp- 
toms are acute, and the animal, in a short time, dies in a convulsion, from cerebral apoplexy. 
There is generally a bloody discharge from the mouth, nose, and anus. This form is common 
among sheep and cattle. In the acute form the disease lasts somewhat longer. The animal has a 
high temperature, is restless, has convulsions, grinds the teeth, staggers, becomes insensible, and 
dies. The respirations may be accelerated and difficult, the heart palpitates, and the animal pants 
and groans. The mucous membranes of the head become dark colored, the animal has convul- 
sions and dies from suffocation. Bloody discharges may occur from the body openings. 

In the subacute form the course of the disease is longer and the symptoms are about the same 
as in the acute form, but more clearly marked. It may run an intermittent course and last from 
one to three days. 

The carbuncles or swellings of the skin that sometimes appear are at first hard and painful, 
but later become cold and painless. The diagnosis of the disease is based on the symptoms, 
autopsy, and bacteriological examination. The death rate is from 70 to 100 per cent. 

Treatment — It is not advisable to attempt curative treatment. Preventive treatment is 
important. As soon as the disease occurs in a herd all the animals should be vaccinated with the 
anthrax vaccine. We must avoid scattering the disease over pastures and roads by dragging the 
anthrax carcasses over them. They should be burned as near the spot where they died as possible. 
If buried there is a danger of the spores working to the top of the ground. The spot on which 
the animal lies must be thoroughly disinfected. 



344 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

HYDROPHOBIA 

{Rabies) 

This is one of the oldest known diseases. Erroneous opinions about the cause of 
the disease are held by some people, and by others it is not considered a specific 
disease. It does occur, however, and its true character should be better known. 
Dogs, cats, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs are the domestic animals chiefly 
affected, and man, when bitten by a rabid animal, generally a dog, may develop the 
disease. 

Causes — The specific cause of rabies is not yet known. The virus is con- 
tained in the brain, spinal cord, nerves, glands, and their secretions, and is trans- 
mitted by the bite of a rabid animal. The time that may elapse from the bite 
to the development of the disease varies in the different species of animals. It 
may vary from seven days to one year, but the usual time is from twenty to seventy 
days. 

Symptoms — Rabies occurs in two forms, the dumb and the furious. The furious form is 
the more common. The symptoms differ somewhat in the different species. 

In the dog the symptoms are divided into three stages : melancholy, rabid or violent, and para- 
lytic. The first stage.lasts from twelve to fort5^-eight hours, the behavior of the animal is altered, 
it becomes swollen, irritable, and nervous. Sometimes it is quite friendly. It may have a 
tendency to gnaw or swallow indigestible objects. Frequently the bite seems to itch and it will 
bite and lick it. Slight difficulty in swallowing, labored respirations, fever and constipation are 
sometimes noticed. The second stage may last four days. The violent or rabid symptoms are 
manifested, and the dog will leave home and take long journeys. It may move quite rapidly and 
generally does not return home. It acts strangely and shows an inclination to bite, snapping at 
persons, animals, and imaginary objects, and biting sticks or anything held toward it. The bark 
is peculiar, the appetite is lost, and the patient very rapidly becomes emaciated. In the third, or 
paralytic stage the dog is usually greatly emaciated and disfigured. The lower jaw drops, the 
tongue is lolled, and the eyes are sunken and glassy. Paralysis of the hind parts may be present. 
Death takes place in a short time. 

In the dumb form the first two stages are absent and the paralytic one predominates. Death 
occurs in a few days, usually during a convulsion. 

In the horse the symptoms come on quite rapidly and the course of the disease is short. Some 
animals become aggressive, and lacerate and mutilate their bodies. They are nervous and look 
about as if attracted by strange sounds. The bite is often the seat of an intense itching. The 
efforts to bite and kick are well directed and the animal may at times try to drink or eat. The 
dumb form may occur in the horse. 

Cattle butt with the horns and sometimes show a tendency to bite. They bellow more than 
usual and the sexual desire is increased. They are not very aggressive. The course is longer than 
in the horse. Finally the paralytic symptoms manifest themselves and the animal frequently falls 
down and is unable to rise for a few minutes. Patient usually becomes greatly emaciated. 



HYDROPHOBIA, GLANDERS 345 

Pigs are restless, squeal, dig up the litter, and exhibit a desire to bite. Other symptoms are 
about the same as those already given. 

The diagnosis is determined by the character of the symptoms shown by the affected animals 
and the inoculation of susceptible animals (rabbits, usually) with a portion of the spinal cord of 
the dead animal. 

The disease is incurable and the affected animals should be destroyed. When rabies appears 
in a neighborhood all the dogs in that section should be tied up until all danger is over. In the 
human patient the disease is amenable to the Pasteur system of treatment. Madstones are con- 
demned as worthless, in so far as any curative effects are concerned, by all medical authorities. 

GLANDERS 

{Farcy) 

Glanders of the horse has been known since ancient time and has long been 
regarded as a contagious disease. It is present in all parts of the United States, 
but has grown less common within recent years. All solipeds are susceptible. Men, 
when exposed to infection, may contract the disease. 

Cause — The specific cause of glanders, Bacillus mallei, was not known until 
1883. The germs are present in the secretions from the nostrils and the ulcers 
that may be present on different parts of the body. These dischai-ges may become 
deposited upon the feed tronghs, mangers, stalls, harness, buckets, watering troughs, 
and feed. It may be conveyed in this way to other animals or by direct contact. 
Frequently, however, the healthy animals escape infection for months. It is usually 
the diseased animal's mate or the one that stands in an adjoining stall that is first 
affected. Catarrhal diseases predispose horses to glanders, as the normal resistance 
of the mucous membranes is thereby in part overcome. The most common route by 
wliich the germs enter the body is by way of the respiratory tract. The germs may 
enter the body by inoculation through a wound in the skin, or through the digestive 
tract. 

Symptoms — There are two forms of the disease, the chronic and the acute. Acute glanders 
rapidly ends in death. The chronic form develops slowly, may last for years, and sometimes 
becomes acute. This is the more common type. The most frequent seat of the disease is in the 
respiratory organs, lymph glands, and skin. The early stage of the disease usually escapes notice. 
The first symptom is a nasal discharge of a dirty-white color from one nostril or from both. This 
is usually small at first, and sometimes intermittent, but becomes quite abundant. The discharge 
is very sticky, and adheres to the hair and skin. Nodules and ulcers appear on the nasal mem- 
brane. These may be high up and escape observation. The ulcers are very characteristic, are 
angry looking, with ragged raised margins and, when they heal, leave a puckered scar. The sub- 
maxillary glands are enlarged and, at first, more or less hard and painful, but they become nodular 
and adhere to the jaw or skin. Nodules and ulcers, known as ' ' farcy buds,-^' may form on the 



34^ INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

skin, usually on the hind limbs and under part of the abdomen ; the lymphatic vessels are swollen 
and hard. The animal loses flesh rapidly, does not stand hard work, and the limbs usually swell. 
When the disease is acute, tbe animal has a fever, is stupid, does not eat, and may have a diarrhea. 
In this form the lymphatic glands suppurate, and the animal becomes emaciated. Mules usually 
have the acute form of the disease. 

In the chronic form it is sometimes diflScult to diagnose the disease. The ulcers on the nasal 
mucous membrane and elsewhere are very characteristic and, when present, enable one to form a 
diagnosis. A bacteriological examination of the nasal discharge also may be made. Mallein, 
a product of the germ when grown artificially, is a help in diagnosing obscure cases. When 
injected beneath the skin of a suspected animal, it causes a rise in temperature and a hot, charac- 
teristic swelling at the point of injection. 

Treatment — Curative treatment is not to be recommended. The protective treatment is to 
stamp out the disease wherever found by killing all affected animals and disinfecting the stables, 
harness, or anything else that has been used around the affected animals. 

TUBERCULOSIS 

( Consumption) 

Tuberculosis is a very widespread disease and is of great concern to the stock- 
man. Cattle are by far the most susceptible to the disease. Pigs, sheep, and 
horses are only occasionally affected. The disease exists in all parts of the United 
States, but is more common in the Eastern States than in any other section. In 
European countries and in Canada a larger proportion of the cattle are affected 
than in this country. Tuberculosis has been known to exist in cattle for centuries, 
hiws restricting the use of the flesh of such animals for food having been included 
in the Jewish code. It was not until 1882 that Koch discovered the germ that 
I'auses the disease. 

Causes — The specific cause of the disease is the Bacillus tuberculosis. 
Unsanitary conditions favor the spread of the disease in a herd, so that we would 
expect to find fewer animals affected where these sanitary conditions are perfect or 
nearly so. Animals having a low resisting power are predisposed to it. This is 
noticed in the different breeds of dairy cattle. Infection takes place by healthy 
animals herding or stabling with diseased ones, and frequently the disease is intro- 
duced by the purchase of a single diseased animal. The tubercle bacillus may 
enter the body by four different routes : By way of the respiratory tract, the diges- 
tive tract, or the genital passages and through a wound in the skin. The most 
common modes of infection are by inhalation and taking the germs in with the 
food. The disease is frequently transmitted to the calves through the milk of 
tuberculous cows. In adults infection probably takes place by their licking each 



TUBEECULOSIS 347 

other, by taking in the germs with the food and water, and by inhalation of dust 
containing the dried virus. In pigs infection is due to drinking the milk of tuber- 
culous cattle, 

Syiiiptoiiis — Tuberculosis usually runs a chronic course lasting for years and frequently 
■without visible symptoms. At other times it takes on the acute form, the symptoms are marked, 
and death may occur in a few months or weeks. The symptoms vary with the different organs 
that are affected and the species of animal. In advanced pulmonary tuberculosis there is a 
short, dry cough, especially noticeable when the animal moves around, and when it drinks ; the 
respirations are quickened and the mouth is sometimes held partly open ; chronic indigestion may 
be manifested, the appetite decreases, the coat is rough, the eyes sunken, and the animal is weak 
and emaciated. By auscultating one gets no sounds over the solidified areas of lung tissue. If 
we hear a decided blow we suspect a cavity. Friction sounds are frequently heard. If the lym- 
phatic glands are affected we may find enlargements under the throat and at various points under 
the skin. If the udder is affected there is a gradual enlargement and hardening of the quarters, 
but this condition is not painful. Abscesses may form and discharge through the teats or break on 
the outside. If there is tuberculosis of the genital organs of the cow she will come in heat more 
frequently, will not become pregnant so readily, and in some instances will be sterile. Abortion 
may be common in a dairy herd having tuberculosis. There may be some nasal discharge in 
tuberculous cattle. In cold weather they may chill after drinking cold water ; in hot weather, 
when moved about, they may pant. Usually they become very thin, the neck becoming wedge- 
shaped and clean-cut and the space back of the shoulders depressed. Cattle frequently maintain a 
good appetite and stay in good flesh if well cared for. The extent to which the disease may 
progress without producing more profound symptoms Is astonishing. 

During the first stages, the disease can not be detected by a physical examination. Certain 
symptoms may be manifested, but they are like those seen in other diseases. In the latter stages 
of the disease we can express an opinion with some certainty. A physical diagnosis then must be 
based upon a number of definite symptoms and a general history of the disease. 

The most certain and only practical method of diagnosing is by the application of the tuber- 
culin test. Tuberculin is a product of the tubercle bacillus and is obtained by growing the germ 
on bouillon. When this is injected into the tissue beneath the skin in tuberculous animals it causes 
a characteristic rise in temperature. Tuberculin is germ-free and can not produce tuberculosis. 

The post-mortem lesions are very characteristic. Scattered through the diseased tissues are 
the tubercles, which may vary in size from that of a mustard seed to that of a grape, and when cut 
into usually contain soft, yellow, cheesy matter. When several of these nodules are close together 
they may unite, break down and form abscesses. Sometimes the tubercles contain a gray pus, or 
if of long standing become infiltrated with lime salts and are gritty. Masses of tuberculous 
material weighing many pounds may be found in the lungs and liver of advanced cases. No tissue 
of the body is exempt from the disease. 

Suppression op Tuberculosis Among Cattle — In foreign countries, since the application 
of the tuberculin test, tuberculosis has been found to be more widespread than one would formerly 
have believed. In well kept herds it may appear as an innocent disease at first, but it is sui-e in the 
end to cause serious financial losses, as well as a continual menace to public health. The greatest 



348 INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

loss falls on the farmer and stock raiser, but until these classes become educated to this fact they 

presumably will continue to take no interest in the suppression of the disease. Sick or suspected 

animals should be isolated or slaughtered; stables should be disinfected and kept as sanitary as 

possible. The milk of diseased animals should not be fed unless it is boiled; only those cattle that 

have been proved by the tuberculin test to be free from tuberculosis should be retained on the 

farm. 

HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE 

Hog cholera is not an old disease in the sense of having been known and 
described for a long time, as have glanders and anthrax, nor is it a new disease, as 
outbreaks occurred as long ago as 1833-1840 in the Middle and Southern States. 
Swine plague was not recognized as a separate disease until about 1890. The total 
loss to the swine industry from the two diseases has been enormous. 

Causes — There is a specific germ for each disease. Hog cholera is caused by 
the bacillus of hog cholera, and swine plague by the bacillus of swine plague. The 
two germs differ in size, shape, activity, method of growth, resistance to outside 
conditions, and their effect on the body. The hog cholera germ is larger, more 
active, and is better able to resist outside conditions than the swine plague germ. 
When a hog is inoculated with cholera germs the intestines are affected; if inocu- 
lated with swine plague the lungs are aff'ected. There are other differences one might 
mention, but these are sufficient to satisfy the general reader. Swine plague germs 
are widely distributed, but are not harmful unless their virulence is increased or 
the resistance of the animal diminished by certain conditions. The gerin may 
become virulent, if conditions are favorable, spreading to other farms the same as 
the germ of hog cholera. This latter organism is not usually present and must be 
introduced from diseased herds. There are secondary or predisposing causes that 
are of great importance. 

Injudicious management and unsanitary conditions are factors of the same 
importance here as in some of the other infectious diseases. Among the agents 
which may carry the germs are streams, wind, birds, dogs, persons walking from 
one farm to another, buying hogs from infected cars, and exhibiting at fairs. 
The time that elapses between the infection of the herd and the appearance of the 
first symptoms of the disease varies from four to twenty days. In hog cholera the 
'virus is taken into the system with the food, by inhaling it along with the air and 
dust, and sometimes through the surface of a fresh wound. The swine plague virus 
is generally inhaled along with the air. 

SyiiiptOiiiS — Cholera assumes several different forms and, therefore, one is frequently 
unable to recognize any specific set of symptoms. In the acute form the course is rapid ; running 



HOG CHOLEKA AND SWINE PLAGUE 349 

from a few hours lo two or three days ; in the subacute form the course is from three days to a 
week, and in the chronic form from a week to a month or longer. The symptoms as here 
described are for the more common cases, that live from three to seven days. About the first 
symptom to be observed is a general droopy condition; the eyes are more or less closed and 
dimmed, the ears drop more than usual, there is a certain amount of sluggishness, and, although 
the hog eats, it is not with the greediness that is customary. The appetite becomes depraved and 
the animal will eat clay, earthy substances, and the droppings from other hogs or from chickens. 
The hog lies about more than usual, hiding in fence corners, under litter, and in out-of-the-way 
places. If he should have access to a manure pile, that will be a favorite place. During the hot 
days he will prefer to lie in the scorching sun rather than in the shade. At first he will respond 
to calling for feed, but later he will not get up unless urged to do so. During the progress of the 
disease and sometimes from the very beginning, there will be pronounced rheumatic symptoms. 
The hog will be lame first in one leg and then in another. The back will be arched. Diarrhea 
usually makes its appearance with the onset and is almost always present at some time during the 
course of the disease. The discharge at fii'st is thinner than normal, but very rapidly becomes 
tarry and has a characteristic odor. Constipation may occur and is almost sure to be present in 
those animals that eat earth. Vomiting is also present. There is rapid emaciation. The fever 
is high and the breathing rapid, but not labored. 

In acute cases death occurs so suddenly that the symptoms may not be developed. 
In the chronic type, the ears and tail swell and crack, and sometimes drop off. 
Ulcers and sores may form on various parts of the body. Portions of the skin may 
become dry and gangrenous, and crack, the hair dropping off. 

In swine plague the cough may be the first symptom. It is noticed when the 
pig first gets up or after exercise. The breathing is short and rapid, with a jerking 
of the flanks. It soon becomes more labored, the throat swells, and the nose may 
bleed. Pressure on the ribs causes pain. The eyes are inflamed and watery, and 
constipation may be present. Swine plague is particularly common among old 
hogs. The course is usually longer than in hog cholera. Both diseases may be 
present in the same animal. 

Diagnosis — The history of the outbreak will help in making a correct diagnosis. We may be 
able to differentiate between the two diseases, hog cholera and swine plague, by noting the symp- 
toms, and by making an autopsy. In nearly all cases of cholera the post-mortem lesions are so 
characteristic that one should be able to recognize the disease. Red blotches are seen on the skin. 
The spleen may be enlarged. The intestines show inflammatory changes. Ulcers varying in 
size from that of a millet seed to that of a dime are seen in the caecum and other parts of the 
digestive tract. These ulcers are especially common in the region of the opening from the small 
intestine into the caecum (ileo-caecal valve), and are quite characteristic in appearance. The 
edges project above the surface of the membrane, the ulcer may be irregular in shape and is of 
a reddish, brownish, or yellowish color. Hemorrhagic spots may appear in the different organs 
The lymph glands are hemorrhagic, red, or enlarged. Swine plague germs may cause red patches 



350 INFECTIOUS ■ DISEASES 

also. The primary organs affected are the lungs and a bronchitis, pneumonia, or pleurisy may 
be present. In hog cholera the lungs are not usually affected. 

Treatment — The preventive treatment is to admit no hogs to the general herd that have 
been purchased from unknown sources, at sales, or from stockyards, or exhibited at fairs, 
without quarantining for twenty days. Keep the hogs in comparatively small pens, so that the 
disease may not be distributed over the whole farm. Separate the well from the sick and not the 
sick from the well. Give plenty of comfortable shelter and room to prevent crowding. Above 
all secure good well water, from a driven well, and allow no wallows. Give the hogs plenty of 
water to drink and withhold all feed for a few days to a week. They will not starve. When 
beginning feed again use only sloppy food, as bran and meal mashes. Allow only small quantities 
at a time. Avoid green corn or wheat. If the bowels are constipated use calomel to move them. 
With these attentions to care and diet, as much can be accomplished as by elaborate medicinal 
treatment. 

All litter should be kept cleaned up, all carcasses promptly burned or buried with quicklime in 
order to limit the duration of the infection. 

It is to be hoped that some method of prevention and cure will soon be discovered, but iu the 
meantime cleanliness is the essential. 

LUMPY JAW 

{Actinomycosis) 

This is an infectious disease and may affect cattle, horses, and swine. It is 
generally local in character, affecting the bones or soft parts of the head, but may 
involve other parts, as the lungs or intestinal tract. It. is very widely distributed. 

Causes — Actinomycosis is produced by a vegetable organism of a somewhat 
higher order of life than the bacteria and called the ray-fungus. The germs grow 
iu colonies and can be seen in the diseased tissues or the pus from an actinomycotic 
abscess as spherical bodies about the size of a grain of sand, yellow, white or dark 
in color. They are made up of a large number of filaments that branch out around 
a central portion like tlie spokes of a wheel. The fungus is found originally on 
plants and enters the body in various ways, supposedly, as a general thing, through 
an abrasion of the liniug membrane of the mouth, or of the skin, through diseased 
teeth or ducts of glands, and by inlialation. 

Syniptonis — The disease is characterized by tumors or abscesses, usually in the region of 
the jaw The tumor may involve only the softer tissues, or affect the jawbone, causing enlarge- 
ment and later honey-combing, finally breaking down and discharging pus. When the tongue 
is affected it is swollen and painful, and prehension and mastication of the food are frequently 
impossible. When the larynx or pharynx is the seat of the disease, breathing and swallowing are 
difficult and painful. Actinomycosis of the lungs may present the appearance of a chronic affec- 
tion of those organs. Other internal organs may become affected, but these cases are rare. In 
generalized cases the usual course is slow emaciation and death. These tumors are quite common 



PARASITES OF THE HORSE AND MULE 351 

in cattle, and one has little difficulty in diagnosing the disease. In doubtful cases a microscopic 
examination of the pus or of a section of the tumor may be necessary. 

Treatment — When the tumor is small and external, it maybe dissected out or laid open and 
tincture of iodine or Lugol's solution injected into it. From one to two drams of iodide of potas- 
sium should be given internally in the feed or drinking water every day for two or three weeks. 
One should not be sparing in the use of the drug if improvement does not follow. This treatment 
is a specific and, unless the disease is general and the animal weak, will result in a cure. In the 
large abattoirs, unless the disease is generalized, the carcass is not condemned, only the affected 
part being rejected. 

PARASITES 
PARASITES OF SOLIPEDS 

INTESTINAL, WORMS OF THE HORSE AND MULE 

Intestinal worms are generally seen in young or weak and debilitated animals. 
Horses running in pasture are frequently affected by them. The following varieties 
may be found in the intestines of the horse: 

Large Round Worm {Ascaris megalocephala) — This is a large round 
worm, yellowish white in color, and from 4 to 12 inches in length, sometimes much 
longer, and varying in thickness from that of a straw to that of a lead pencil. They 
are rigid-looking worms, tapering toward the ends; at the anterior extremity one 
can see three well-developed lips. They are common in the small intestines of the 
horse. 

Pill Worms {Oxyuris curvula) — These parasites are slender worms from 
1 to 2 inches in length, and partly transparent or white in color. They are very 
common parasites of -the horse, and are present in the posterior part of the intestinal 
tract. They are often seen projecting from the anus or fixed to its margins. 

Varieties of the flat or tape worms may be found in the intestines, but are not 
common. Other varieties of round worms may also be present. 

Symptoms — When large numbers of round or pin worms are present in the intestines they 
may give rise to certain symptoms, such as colicky pains, itching, unthrifty condition, constipation, 
diarrhea, and depraved appetite. In thrifty, well ^ared for animals they do but little harm. Pin 
worms in particular may cause some annoyance by their irritation to the walls of the rectum or 
anus. 

Treatment — In poorly cared for, unthrifty animals better care and bitter tonics constitute 
part of the treatment. Injections of soapsuds will assist in removing the pin worms. 

EXTERNAL PARASITES OF THE HORSE AND MULE 

Biting" Lice {Trichodectodes) — The biting louse is the most common external 
parasite of the horse. It is most troublesome during the winter, and in colts and 



352 PARASITES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

horses that are roughing it or running out in i>asture. In poorly cared for, unthrifty 
animals it may do considerable harm. 

Symptoms — Animals infested with this parasite have a very rough, ragged looliing coat, 
and on the neck and around the base of the tail, or wherever the lice are abundant, the hair may 
be rubbed off in their attempts to rid themselves of the annoyance. 

Treatment — It is very easy to rid an animal of lice. A thorough washing with a 2 per cent 
water solution of some of the coal tar products is generally sufficient. It is best, however, to repeat 
the bath in about a week. During the cold weather one must guard against the animal catching 
cold. The stalls and walls of the stable in which the animal is kept should be whitewashed or 
sprayed with an antiseptic wash in order to prevent infection. 

Sucking Louse [Hcematojnnus) — This is not so common a louse as the 
preceding variety. Its principal seat is at the mane and near the base of the tail. 
It gives rise to very much the same symptoms as the biting louse. The treatment 
is the same as for the former variety. 

Mange in Horses, Texas Itch {Sarcoptic Scabies) — Mange is not a 
common disease of the horse and occurs principally on the range. Native horses 
may become infected with this parasite by coming in contact with animals brought 
from infected herds. Itch is due to a mite that burrows into the skin forming 
galleries in which it deposits its eggs. The disease exists in both the warm and 
cold weather. The itching is greatest at night. 

Symptoms — The principal symptom at first is an intense itching, to allay which the 
animal rubs himself against posts or the sides of the stall. Little papules appear on the skin, in 
small patches at first, but gradually spread ; crusts form at the base of the hairs and cause matting. 
The hair finally drops out and large dry patches are formed, covered with debris and crusts. Sores 
may be seen on different parts of the body, due to the animal rubbing and scraping itself in trying 
to relieve the itching. One may find the mites in the crusts on the affected parts. 

Treatment — Washing the infected animals with a strong solution of any of the coal tar 
products will destroy the parasites. About a 4 per cent watery solution is sufficient. It is usually 
best to repeat the wash in about one or two weeks after the first application. We must take 
certain precautions against reinfecting the animals by washing the harness, stalls, mangers, and 
walls of the stable with an antiseptic wash. 

PARASITES OF CATTLE 

INTESTINAL ^VORMS 

Cattle are seldom affected with intestinal parasites. Several varieties may be 
found, including varieties of tape and round worms. The large round worm, the 
ascaride, is found in calves. It is reddish white and from 5 to 10 inches in length. 
This parasite causes some irritation in the intestines and may give rise to symptoms 
of indigestion. 



PARASITES OF CATTLE 353 

Treatment — One teaspoonful of turpentine may be given in the milk for a few days. To 
large calves a tablespoonful may be given. 

LiUiig^ Worms (Vertninous Bronchitis) — Verminous bronchitis in calves 
is not uncommon. It is due to a small thread-like worm, Strongylus micrurus, 
from 1| to 2 inches in length. This disease may exist as an enzootic in a drove 
of calves. 

Symptoms— If the parasites in the bronchial tubes are not present in large numbers the 
symptoms are mild and develop slowly. The cough is broken and husky and may come on in 
paroxysms, in one of which the animal may die. In coughing the animal may expel mucus con- 
taining worms. The animal presents a very unthrifty appearance, the appetite is impaired or lost, 
the eyes are sunken, and the animal is weak and may become greatly emaciated. The disease is 
most severe during the cold weather and usually runs a long course, the calf gradually becoming 
weaker, or it may finally become strong enough to throw off the disease. In poorly cared for 
animals the prognosis is unfavorable. 

Treatment — Infection takes place by the calves running on infected pastures, especially 
during the spring and early summer. We must keep the diseased calves separate from the healthy 
ones and avoid turning the latter into infected stables or pastures. The lungs of animals dying 
from the disease must be destroyed and we should try to limit the infection to as few pastures as 
possible. The principal treatment for sick animals is summed up in good quarters, good care, and 
plenty of nourishing food. Bitter tonics may be given if necessary. 

EXTERNAL, PARASITES OF CATTLE 

Long and Short Nosed Cattle Lice — These are the two common 
varieties of lice found on cattle. By irritating the skin they impair the thriftiness 
of the animal, especially when poorly cared for. They are most noticeable in the 
winter. 

Treatment — Lice on cattle are hard to destroy, and if found must receive prompt and 
thorough treatment, which is the same as recommended for the horse. 

Ring Worm, Barn Itch — This is an affection of the skin caused by a 
vegetable parasite, Tinea tonsurans, and is a common skin affection among young 
cattle in the winter and spring. It is readily transmitted from one animal to 
another. 

Symptoms — Patches of the skin on the head and neck are most commonly affected. The 
skin is first slightly inflamed, vesicles may form, followed by the formation of scaly, brittle crusts. 
The affected areas are gray in color and denuded of hair. The part itches, and the animal is 
frequently seen scratching it. In a few months the affection may disappear without any treat- 
ment. 

Treatment — The stables and sheds should be whitewashed or disinfected in order to destroy 
the spores scattered around by the crusts. The affected skin areas should be washed thoroughly 
and the scales removed. Sulphur ointment may then be rubbed on the part once a day. 



354 PAEASITES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

PARASITES OF SHEEP 

PARASITES IN THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES 

Twisted. Stomach Worms {Strongylus contortus) — This is a very com- 
mon parasite of sheep, found in the fourth stomach. It is a very small, thread-like 
worm about f inch in length, usually reddish in color and present in large numbers. 
This parasite is widely distributed and is especially common on low, wet pastures 
and in wet years. 

SyniptoniS — The symptoms are first manifest in the lambs and it is not until early summer 
that they begin to show evidence of the disease. The animal acts dull and lags behind the flock- 
The ears drop and the animal looks unthrifty. Later it is affected with scours, becomes badly 
emaciated and weak, stands with arched back, and walks with stiff gait. The skin is pale and 
dropsical swellings appear under the jaw or on the neck. The usual termination is death. 

Treatment — The sheep usually becomes infested with stomach worms by grazing on infected 
pastures. Permanent sheep pastures are common sources of infection. The preventive treatment 
consists in changing pastures and destroying the parasites in the old sheep by administering a 
vermicide. If this is practiced the number of lambs lost from this cause will be greatly lessened. 
One should begin the treatment early in the disease. The cause can be determined by destroying 
a sick lamb and examining it carefully. Various remedies are proposed. The most common 
drench is turpentine (1 ounce to 16 ounces of milk, the dose being 2 to 4 ounces, repeated once a 
day for three days). Better results have been obtained with the following recipe: Coal tar creo- 
sote (1 part), water (99 parts); the dose is from 2 to 4 ounces. It need not be repeated as in 
the turpentine treatment. In drenching, some advantage results from keeping the sheep in the 
standing position. 

Intestinal Parasites — Two forms of tape worm and several varieties of 
round worms are commonly fotmd in sheep. These intestinal round worms gen- 
erally seem to cause but little harm, but no doubt they add to the unthriftiness of 
the animal when it is affected by the stomach worm. The tapeworms cause heavy 
losses in the Western States, but are seldom seen east of the Mississippi River, except 
in animals shipped in from the West. 

Treatment — The treatment for the stomach worm is usually sufficient to drive them out. 
If a water solution of coal tar creosote is used, the effect on the intestinal worms will be greater if 
from 30 to 80 grains of thymol are added to each dose after it is measured out. 

Nodular Disease — Nodular disease of sheep is caused by a very small worm 
{GH.sophagostoma colnnihlannm). In the larval stage it becomes lodged beneath the 
lining membrane of the intestines in tumors varying in size from that of a millet 
seed to that of a hazel nut. It is one of the most common intestinal parasites of 
sheep. 

Symptoms — These are not characteristic. Usually the sheep are debilitated and have 



PARASITES OF SHEEP 355 

diariluii, or the opposite condition, constipation, may be present. The disease is easily diagnosed 
by making a post-mortem examination. Small tumors are found in the mucous membrane of the 
intestines. The contents of the largest are cheesy in character and of a greenish color. The 
affection is most noticeable in yearling sheep while on dry feed in the winter. 

Treatment — The treatment is wholly preventive. It consists in avoiding, if possible, the 
pasturing of sheep on undrained and permanent pastures, and destroying the adult worms by 
administering a vermifuge. As soon as possible put the sheep on rye or wheat pasture, or feed 
roots. The nodules will disappear the following spring and summer. 

EXTERNAL, PARASITES OF SHEEP 

The Sheep Tick {Melophagiis ovina) — This is a very common external par- 
asite of sheep. It is about ^ inch in length, of a reddish or gray brown color and 
easily detected if present in any number on sheep. Ticks, abundant on sheep, 
cause unthriftiness. Upon lambs the damage is greater, and if not I'elieved, may 
result in death. The immature form of the tick is seedlike and brown, nnd 
adheres to the wool or skin. 

Treatment — Ticks are easily destroyed by dipping. This should be done as soon after 
shearing as possible, as it is then that the ticks leave the old sheep and attack the lambs. Any of 
the coal tar preparations make effective dips, as this parasite is easily destroyed. 

Cominoii Scab — This disease is caused by a small animal parasite, the itch- 
mite [Psoroptes communis). These mites are sm;ill, almost wliite in color, and about 
the same size as the dot over the letter i. If scabs and wool from an infested sheep 
are placed upon a black surface and in the warm sunlight one may see the mites 
crawling about. The scab mites live on the exudations from the skin caused by 
their bites. The bite causes irritation and considerable exudation, which dries, 
forming crusts. The parasites live under the crusts and scabs thus formed. The 
female deposits her eggs on the surface of the skin, to which they readily stick. 
Each female lays from fifteen to twenty eggs, which become mature parasites in 
about a week. This period may be longer under unfavorable conditions. 

Symptoms — The first symptom noticed is the uneasiness of the animal. The presence of 
the mite causes an intense itching, which the sheep attempts to relieve b}^ scratching, biting, and 
rubbing itself. The fleece soon becomes "taggy," owing to the loose locks of wool that have 
been pulled out of the affected areas on the back and sides of the sheep. If we examine the sur- 
face in these regions the infested spots are seen to be covered with little elevations that give the 
skin a whitish or yellowish appearance. These patches gradually increase in size, the wool drops 
out, and the skin becomes thickly covered with scales and scabs. The mites soon abandon the 
center of the scabs, which gradually heal and the disease slowly progresses on the margins of the 
spots. When badly infested the sheep becomes weak and emaciated, and if much of the fleece is 
lost the animal is unable to withstand cold weather. 



356 PAEASITES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

Tkeatment — The treatment is both preventive and curative. The preventive measures 
consist in guarding against infesting the flock by quarantining all newly purchased animals unless 
satisfied that they are free from scab. The curative treatment consists in using some good dip, 
allowing the sheep to stay in the bath a sufficient time for it to soak through the crusts and destroy 
the parasites, and again dipping in about ten days in ord^r to kill those that have hatched from 
the eggs. The tobacco dips are to be preferred. After dipping, the sheep should be put into 
fresh quarters, and the old quarters cleaned and disinfected by spraying the floors and walls with 
the dip. The old quarters should not be used again for sheep for at least six weeks. 

PARASITES OF SWINE 

INTESTINATL, PARASITES 

Thorn-lieaded Worm {EcJiinorJiy^ichns gigas) — This is a large worm, 
from 2 to 8 inches in length. Its body is cylindrical, wrinkled, curved, and about 
the thickness of a lead pencil. The anterior extremity is armed with a proboscis 
surrounded with several rows of hooks. It is by means of this proboscis that the 
parasite attaches itself to the walls of the intestines. The home of tliis parasite is 
in the small intestines but it may migrate to other parts of tlie alimentary tract. 

Large Round Worm {Ascaris suilla) — This worm is from 3 to 5 inches 
in length, the body is white, smooth, and tajjeriiig toward the extremities. It is a 
very common parasite of swine and inhabits the small intestines. It may be found 
on other parts of the tract. 

Pin and Wliii> Worms {CEsophagostoma dentatum and Trichocejyhalus cre- 
natus) — These parasites inhabit the large intestine, especially toward its anterior 
extremity. The pin worm is small, about -^ inch in length, white, straight, and 
pointed at both ends. The whip worm is very slen,der and hair-like at the anterior 
portion, posteriorly it is thicker. It is about 1^ inches long and white in color. 

The habits of swine are such that they are predisposed to all forms of intestinal 
parasites. In pigs these parasites are more common than in older animals. In 
unthrifty pigs they are usually present in large numbers. From half a dozen to a 
dozen of the thorn-headed worms may be present in one animal. The round worms 
are usually present in larger numbers. 

Symptoms — Thorn-headed worms are said to cause loss of appetite, constipation, diarrhea, 
restlessness, emaciation, weakness of the loins, and in young pigs convulsions and death. The 
symptoms attributed to the round worm are depraved appetite, unthriftiness, and restlessness. 
When present in large numbers they may cause obstruction of the intestmal canal. 

Treatment — This is the same for all varieties of intestinal worms. One teaspoonful of 
turpentine per hundred pounds of body weight may be given in the milk. This may be ir-veated 



PARASITES OF SWINE 357 

the following day. One teaspoonful of a mixture of equal parts of powdered worm seed and areca 
nut maybe mixed with a little corn meal and fed to the animal. Santonine (5 grains) and calomel 
(2 grains) may be given in the swill or feed. This dose should be repeated. 

KIDNEY WORM IN SWINE 

This worm is from f to 1^ inches m length, dark colored, and pointed at both 
ends. It is fonnd principally in the tissues around the kidneys, but it may be 
found in other parts of the abdominal cavity. Swine breeders attribute a weak 
back or paralysis of the hind parts of swine to this parasite. Post-mortem exami- 
nations do not bear out this theory, as it is seldom found in animals in this 
condition. 

BRONCHITIS IN SAVINE 

The parasite causing this trouble is the Strongylus paradoxus. It is from f to 
1^ inches long, very slender and whitish or brown in color. It is rather a common 
panisite in pigs. The female lays a number of eggs, which may be expelled by 
coughing and undergo a part of their development outside of the animal body. 
The pig probably becomes infested by drinking surface water or I'ooting in the mud. 

Symptoms — The bronchial tubes may become more or less inflamed and the inflammation 
may extend to the lung tissue and cause small patches of pneumonia. In some cases a large portion 
of the lung tissue may become affected. The first symptom is a cough that may occur upon leav- 
ing the bed, after exercise, and after eating. In badly infected cases the paroxysms of coughing 
are quite severe, and the condition may be such as to be mistaken for swine plague. In most cases 
the pig is unthrifty, but is usually able to overcome the disease. 

Treatment — The treatment is preventive. The pigs should be removed from the infected 
pasture and should have pure water Nourishing food and good care will help the pig to overcome 
the disease. 

EXTERNAL. PARASITES OF SW^INE 

Hog" Louse {Hcematopinnus stiis) — This is the largest member of the louse 
family. The favorite points of attack are along the lower part of the neck, under 
and behind the forelegs, and on the belly. The itching is often severe, especially 
in young hogs, and may cause urticaria. 

Treatment — The louse is easily killed and at little expense. The method of treatment should 
depend on the number of hogs to be treated. Where the drove is small, the hogs can be driven 
into a pen and sprinkled or sprayed with a 2 per cent solution of some of the coal tar products 
or a little kerosene. If a large number are to be ti'eated, crude petroleum, a cheaper material, 
can be used. If a dipping vat is used, an inch or two of the crude petroleum may be poured 
ou the surface of the water and the pigs driven through it. The hog houses and pens must be 
cleaned or the hogs will become reinfested from them. 
24 



358 PAEASITES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

BOT-FLIES 

The bot-fly is important because the hirval form is a parasite in tbe different 
species of domestic animals. The bot-flies form a distinct family and are easily 
recognized both in the larval and adult stages. The body of the fly is heavy and 
usually hairy, the head large and the eyes prominent. During the warm, bright, 
sunny days they can be seen flying around the animals and depositing their eggs or 
larvae in places whence they can readily gain access to the proper part. 

The body of the larvge is segmented, thick, and fleshy. It is found in various 
parts of the body of its host — in the digestive tract, under the skin, in the sinuses 
of the head, and sometimes on the surface of the brain. 

BOT-FLY OF THE HORSE 

This fly {Gastrophilus equi) is about f inch in length, the body is hairy, and its 
general color brown, with black or yellowish spots. The female fly is the one gen- 
erally seen. It hovers near the horse and when ready to deposit its egg, it darts 
toward the animal and fastens the Qgg to the hair. These eggs are yellow and in 
horses running in pasture may be so plentiful that the entire part takes on a yel- 
lowish tinge. The eggs hatch in from two to four weeks. The hatching of the 
larvae is aided by the animal licking the part. At the same time the larvae are 
transferred to the mouth and thence they pass to the stomach. As soon as the 
larva reaches the stomach it fixes itself on the walls of that organ, remains there 
until late the following spring, and when fully developed loosens its hold and 
passes out with the excrement. The next stage, the pupa, lasts for several weeks 
and is passed in the ground ; then the pupa is transformed into the fly, ready to 
deposit its egg. 

Syiiiptoms — Unless the "bots" are present in large numbers in the stomach, they cause 
no appreciable symptoms. It is only in old, unthrifty, poorly cared for horses or in colts running 
in the pasture that they are at all numerous. They cause injury to the horse by irritating the 
walls of the stomach and obstructing the free passage of food; by drifting along the intestines and 
becoming attached to the walls of the rectum, they may cause great irritation. The symptoms 
shown by the hoi'se are those seen in indigestion. Irritation to the rectum is manifested in the 
usual way. 

Treatment — The treatment is principally preventive. This consists in destroying the eggs 
before the escape of the larvae by washing the infested parts with a 2 or 3 per cent water solution 
of carbolic acid, or rubbing the hair lightly with kerosene. Other methods by which the eggs 
can be destroyed are by clipping the hair from the part or scraping off the eggs with a sharp 
knife. This should be done every two weeks during the time the fly is about. Remedies for the 



BOT-FLIES OF THE HOESE, OX, AND SHEEP 359 

destruction of bots in the stomach should be used with considerable care. Prevention is the most 

successful method of treating them. 

There are other species of the horse bot-fly, but the one just described is the common bot-fly 

of this country, 

BOT-FLY OF THE OX 

This species {Hypoderma Ihieata) is tlie common bot-fly of cattle in this 
country. It resembles a honey bee in appearance, is about ^ inch long, and its 
general color is black. A portion of the front part of tlie body is covered with 
long, whitish hairs, and the upper part of the head, the thorax, and a portion of 
the abdomen, together with the legs, are 'covered with brownish black hairs. The 
fly appears during the warm months of the year and deposits its eggs on the lower 
portions of the body and the extremities. The act of depositing the eggs causes 
a great deal of annoyance and sometimes terror to the cattle. 

Nature of the Injury and Symptoms — On the large ranges, during the spring and 
summer months, these flies annoy and excite the cattle and interfere with their fattening. The 
annoyance from the larvae must be greater than that caused by the adult fly, as the former produce 
a great amount of inflammation in the surrounding tissues during their development within the 
animal's body. The larvae reach the mouth in the same manner as in the horse, by the animal 
licking the part. It then penetrates through the walls of the anterior part of the alimentary tract, 
and wanders through the tissues of the body until finally it reaches a point beneath the skin of the 
back. Here it develops rapidly, and can be felt as a small tumor. Finally it works its way out 
through the hole that it has made in the skin, drops to the ground, and in from three to six weeks 
develops into the adult fly. Besides the damage caused by the annoyance to the animal, the loss 
every year in the hides amounts to a very large sum. 

Treatment — Some of the preventive measures recommended are not practical when applied 
to cattle in general, such as housing the cattle or applying substances to the surface of the body 
that will prevent the female from depositing the eggs. A better way is to destroy the grubs either 
by closing the opening in the skin through which they breathe with mercurial ointment or a little 
kerosene, or by pressing on the skin in such a way as to squeeze the "grub " out and destroy it. 
This may be done as early as January or as late as March. 

BOT-FL,T OF THE SHEEP 

This fly ( CEstrns ovis) is greatly dreaded by sheep. It resembles an overgrown 
house fly and has a brown appearance. It is quite lazy, flying about but little. 

Symptoms — The fly makes its appearance in June or July and deposits live larvae in the 
nostrils of the sheep. The larva works up the nostrils and finally reaches the sinuses of the head. 
Here it attaches itself to the lining membrane until developed. It then passes down to the nostrils, 
drops to the ground, buries itself, and in forty or fifty days becomes a mature fly. During its stay 
in the sinuses of the head it causes great annoyance to the animal. A catarrhal inflammation of the 
membranes is generally present. Nervous symptoms may be manifested, the appetite lost, and the 
animal quite weak. Frequently the animals die. 



teO WOUNDS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

Treatment — The most practical method of treating this disease is by using preventive 
»ea8ures. First, by providing shade in the pastures, and, second, by tarring the noses of the sheep 
livery few days during the summer months to prevent the fly from depositing the larvse. Valuable 
toimals may be treated by trephining into the sinuses and so removing the grubs. 

WOUNDS 

CLASSIFICATION AND MODES OF HEALING 

Classes of Wounds — Whenever any part of the body is injured by a 
««iechanical cause to such an extent as to cause the severing of the tissues it is called 
a wound. 

If the injury is of such a character as to cut tJie parts clean, as with a sharp 
knife, it is called a cut or incised wound. 

If the parts are severed but the edges of the wound more or less ragged or torn, 
as when cut with a barb wire, it is called a torn or lacerated wound. 

If the wound be produced by some pointed object, as a nail, sharp splinter or 
fork tine, the opening small and deep, it is known as a punctured tvound. 

If the object causing the injury is large and blunt and the tissues are injured 
but not torn, it is a bruise or contused wound. In the latter variety there may be 
no injury to the skin or even to the superficial tissues, but the contusion may be 
deep seated, at a point where the tissues meet with the greatest resistance from the 
bone. ' 

Sometimes wounds are given special names, as gunshot or poisoned, but these 
only indicate the manner in which they were inflicted, or some special character. 
They may also receive a special name from the region involved, as open joint. For 
all practical purposes wounds may be considered as cut or incised, torn or lacerated, 
bruised or contused, and punctured. 

Method of Healing — No matter how clean-cut a wound may be, there is 
always some destruction of tissue and the parts do not return to exactly the original 
place. In a clean-cut wound this destruction of tissue is small and the tissues 
when brought together may unite at once. Healing under such conditions is said 
to be hy primary union. This form of union rarely occurs in the lower animals. 
Practically, it never occurs excepting after a surgical operation and then only when 
the greatest care has been used to secure cleanliness and the exact bringing together 
of the parts. 

The common method of union is known as healing hy granulation. In this case 
nature throws out small granulations between the gaping edges of a wound or over 



MODES OF HEALING 361 

its surface, and these granulations finally develop into the same kind of tissue as 
that from which tliey originated, grow together, and thus make the necessary 
repair. At times the weak granulations on the surface and the exudations thrown 
out may coagulate and a hard surface is formed known as a scab. Healing then takes 
place under the scab. Other methods of healing may occur, but practicaHy all 
wounds heal by the methods just described. 

Where wounds heal by the first method, or primary union, there is no appre- 
ciable scar, for the reason that so little new tissue has been formed. Where 
wounds heal by granulation there is a scar of greater or less magnitude, as the new 
tissue which replaces that destroyed is not the same in character as the original. 

The rapidity with which wounds heal will depend upon the kind of tissue 
injured, the amount to be replaced, the degree of motion in the part, the infection 
and irritation, and the general condition of the animal. In general, skin and 
muscles heal rapidly, tendons often quite slowly, cartilage poorly, and nerve tissue 
very slowly. Healing is interfered with by motion. The more nearly absolute 
rest the better the result. Healing by primary union is seen only when no pus is 
present ; the more pus, the slower the healing process. Irritation by biting, lick- 
ing, bandages, or dirt retards rapid union. Finally, an animal in poor condition 
physically, or one kept under unfavorable conditions, can not make a rapid recovery 
from an injury. 

Treatment — Wounds iu domestic animals may heal without attention. It is fortunate that 
such is the case, but this does not make it less desirable that one administer proper treatment and 
thus decrease the chance of a bad result or lessened value of the animal. The time to begin 
treatment is as soon after the accident as possible, but the method of treatment will vary accord- 
ing to the character of the wound. 

. If there is serious hemorrhage, the first step in the treatment is to check it. Serious bleeding 
ordinarily does not occur, owing to the fact that the ends of the vessels are so injured that a clot 
quickly forms. Stockmen often become alarmed, without sufficient reason, when an animal is 
cut. It requires the loss of a very considerable quantity of blood in the larger animals to consti- 
tute a serious hemorrhage. For bleeding from small blood-vessels, the wound may be bathed 
with hot water (from 115° to 120° Fahr.) Cold water may be used in the same manner, but is 
not so useful as when hot. The better method of stopping a hemorrhage is by the compress 
bandage, wherever it can be applied. A good one can be made by cutting cheese-cloth into strips 
about 4 or 5 inches wide and 20 feet long. A pack of jute or oakum should be applied directly 
to the surface of the wound and the bandage applied over this. It may be necessary, where the 
bleeding is from a good-sized vein or artery, to bandage the part heavily, allowing the bandage 
to extend some distance above and below the injury. Physicians and veterinarians have forceps, 
needles, and thread for the purpose of checking hemorrhage from medium-sized and large-sized 
vessels, but they are not always available. Other methods that can be used are the actual cautery 



362 WOUNDS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

and medicines which, when applied to a cut surface, constrict the vessels. What should be 
avoided in all cases is the use of road dust, puff-balls, cobwebs, and dirty rags. These all contain 
germs which may infect the wound, retarding healing and even causing blood poisoning. It is 
well for every stockman to prepare for accidents of this kind and keep on hand some clean, soft 
material that can be torn into bandages when needed. 

The cleansing of the wound is ^ important step in the treatment. Pure boiled water is to be 
preferred for this purpose. The hair should be clipped along the margins of the wound, the 
detached or torn shreds of skin or tissue cut off, and the wound cleansed with a 3 per cent water 
solution of carbolic acid, creolin, or any of the other antiseptics or disinfectants. If necessary, the 
parts around the injury should be washed with soap and water, and if we suspect the presence of 
a foreign body (splinters, etc. ) they should be looked for and removed. If the secretions that after- 
ward form do not drain off properly, but pocket on the inside of the wound, an incision in the 
tissues should be made, lower down if possible, and proper drainage secured. A wound having a 
deep non-draining pocket on the inside may permit the escape of pus along the muscular sheath 
and cause extensive suppuration or death. 

In domestic animals healing is impeded by a bandage, and it is better to leave the wound 
uncovered. If a bandage is used it must be changed twice a day, a clean one being used each 
time, and the wound dressed. 

Deep (ind gaping wounds may be drawn together with stitches or sutures. In clean-cut wounds, 
parallel to the muscular fibers, this is indicated. In lacerated wounds, if the direction is across 
the muscular fibers, or if one can not control the motion in the part, stitches are apt to tear out 
and may do far more harm than good. 

la the after treatment of the wound we must resort to agents that wi]l destroy or retard the 
growth of the germs and at the same time not irritate the tissues. There are any number of such 
agents, but the two liquid disinfectants that are most satisfactory for general use are carbolic acid 
and creolin. Crude preparations resembling creolin are sold as sheep dips and are quite cheap. 
In general the strength of the wash for wounds should be 2 parts of the disinfectant to 98 parts 
water. The best dry antiseptic dressings are boric acid, calomel, and acetanilid. Equal parts by 
weight of boric acid and calomel makes a good dressing. The best means of applying powders to 
the surface of a wound is with a small insect-powder blower. In dressing the wound we should 
first wash it with the antiseptic wash, taking care not to injure the granulations, and remove all the 
pus and foreign matter that may have collected on its surface. A syringe or small piece of cotton 
may be used in applying the wash. A fresh piece of cotton should be used each time the wound is 
dressed. After cleansing it, the dry dressing may be applied. The length of time that may elapse 
between the dressings will depend on the condition of the wound. At first it may be necessary to 
treat it once or twice a day. Later, when healing begins, it will require less attention. If the 
hair and skin around the wound become soiled with the discharge, it should be washed off with 
soap and water and vaseline rubbed on the part. When a scab forms and no pus is discharged, ^ 
cease dressing it. Sometimes, as soon as healing begins, the animal will lick and bite the part. 
If this is the case the horse must be confined in such a way that he can not get at the wound. 

In poorly cared for wounds granulations may pile up and form immense, hard, easily bleeding 
liumors. The whole limb may swell and become two or three times the natural size. Excessive or 



HAENESS IXJUMES 363 

unhealthy granulations must be kept in check from the very beginning, as later they are difBcult 
to control. Pure carbolic acid applied with a small swab is sufBcient to destroy them if not too 
advanced. A good wash for a wound that is not granulating as it should, is zinc sulphate and 
lead acetate (\ ounce of each) in water (1 quart). In some cases it is necessary to cut off the 
granulations with a sharp knife, down to a level with the surrounding skin. A red hot iron may 
also be used. 

The general treatment of punctured wounds does not differ from that of other wounds. The 
opening should be enlarged and the proper drainage secured. It is impossible to judge the extent 
or the probable consequence of this kind of injury. We must examine the wound carefully for 
foreign bodies and if present remove them. Punctured wounds most often occur in the foot. 
The tissues here are hard, yielding but little to swelling, and the pain is severe. The opening of 
such wounds should be enlarged, taking care not to remove too much of the horn, and washed 
once or twice a day with an antiseptic wash. This will insure the proper cleansing and drainage 
and thus tend to a speedy repair and greatly diminish the dangers of tetanus and blood poisoning. 

^Vounds of the joints are always serious and are usually punctured. At the earliest possible 
moment the wound should be cleansed and a blister applied at once to cause swelling and thus 
check the escape of the synovia. If the joint becomes infected, inflammation will follow, the part 
becomes badly swollen, the pain is severe and the articulation may be destroyed. It is very neces- 
sary that the part should be kept quiet even if a cast or splint needs to be applied. The swelling 
that may occur sometimes remains for months. It may be reduced and sometimes driven away 
by the frequent application of blisters. 

HARNESS INJURIES 

Causes — In horses not accustomed to heavy work the skin over the parts 
having to bear most of the weight is tender and easily irritated. The colt suffers 
worst. A large proportion of the injuries are due to ill-fitting harness. A harness, 
when not adjusted properly, may distribute the load unevenly, thereby injuring the 
parts on which the most of the weight is thrown. If the surface of the leather 
coming in contact with the skin becomes covered with sweat and dirt, making it 
rough and hard, it will act as an irritant to the part. The character of tbe work, 
too, is a factor; heavy work over rough ground, or fast work, especially if the animal 
goes about it awkwardly, is likely to cause sprains and bruises. 

SORE NECKS AND GALLING 

These are the simplest forms of injuries and are quite common on the farm when 
the rush of work begins in the spring. When horses are not hardened into work, 
we must keep in mind the fact that the skin on tbe shoulders and back is tender 
and easily inflamed. Especially is this true of tbe colt, but the older animals are 
not exempt from it and preventive measures should be used until the animal 
becomes accustomed to the Avork. The harness for each animal should be properly 



364 INJURIES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

adjusted, cleaned, and oiled. One set should not be made to serve for several dif- 
ferent horses, and especially is this true of the collars. Galling may be prevented 
to a certain extent by stopping and lifting the collar or saddle every hour or oftener 
and rubbing the skin with the hand. Bathing the skin every noon and evening 
will also do much toward preventing galling. If the animal is cared for in this 
manner until the skin becomes hardened to the work, it will keep in better condi- 
tion and be able to do more work throughout the season. A green horse should 
not be worked steadily or made to do heavy work at first. 

Treatment — Zinc and smooth leather pads will not only prevent but often cure sore necks or 
saddle galls. Felt pads are useful, but should always be made dry and soft before putting them 
on in the morning. Sometimes a pad may be so adjusted as not to rest on the sore spot. Such 
adjustment should be made with care and judgment, lest the misfit cause strain or undue pres- 
sure on some muscle. Bathing the inflamed skin with the following lotion will harden it and 
reduce the inflammation : Lead acetate (4 ounces), zinc sulphate (3 ounces), water (1 gallon) ; the 
parts should be well sponged with this lotion on coming in from work at noon and in the evening. 
If sores are present the following preparations are useful: Tannic acid (1 ounce), carbolic acid 
(1 dram), glycerine (4 ounces) ; mix well and apply to the sore once a day ; or, calomel (4 drams), 
boric acid (4 ounces), tannic acid (1 ounce), mix and dust on the part once or twice a day. 

"SIT-rASTS" 

A sit-fast is generally due to wearing a collar that is too short and too tight at 
the top. Too much weight on top of the neck may cause it. 

Treatment — The treatment consists in removing the cause and cutting out the sit- fast. If 
this is not done the neck may continue sore and the horse will sometimes become disagreeable to 
handle. To encourage the separation of the sit-fast or ' ' core " from the healthy tissue and to reduce 
the inflammation, a hot flaxseed poultice should be applied to the top of the neck. It is well to 
renew the poultice every three or four hours during the day by dipping it in hot water. In a day or 
two the sit-fast can be removed. The after treatment is to keep the part clean and use dry dressing. 

- ABSCESSES 

Abscesses on the shoulder are due to an unequal distribution of weight by the 
collars, the parts becoming bruised and the abscesses developing as a result. 

Treatment — Abscesses must be promptly opened and the contents allowed to escape. The 
opening must be large — at the lowest part and well to one side, so that the collar will not rest on 
the small scar that will result. The abscess should be washed out every day with an antiseptic 
wash, until healing begins, and after that at less frequent intervals. The opening should not be 
permitted to close until the abscess has filled in from the bottom. The animal should not be 
worked, at least not in a collar until the healing is complete. A breast harness may be used 
temporarily and the horse made to do light work. 



SPRAINS 365 



TUMORS 

Tumors of the skin a,nd muscles of the shoulders are caused in the same 
manner as the abscesses and sometimes result from abscesses that are not cared for 
properly. Tumors should be dissected out and the resulting wound treated in an 
antiseptic manner. 

SPRAINS 

Sprains are common in horses doing heavy work. Green horses, when made to 
do heavy work over rough ground soon become tired, pull awkwardly, and are very 
liable to a strain. When an animal has a sore shoulder, he may pull sidewise to 
avoid pressure on the part ; thus, the weight will be distributed unevenly, and a 
sprain will often result. Unequal distribution of weight from an ill-fitting harness 
may also cause it. Sprains of the shoulder are frequently serious. The animal may 
not be very lame, but the muscles of the shoulder become atrophied, or ''sweenied," 
in the more common expression. 

Treatment — Sometimes the animal is lame as well as "sweenied." In this case it should be 

placed in a warm stall as long as the lameness continues. In bad cases it is best not to take the 

animal out for any purpose, but to carry all water and feed to him. Sometimes it is good policy 

to tie the animal so that he can not lie down in the stall, as the getting up and down may be such 

an effort as to retard recovery. Nervous animals do better when turned out in a yard or in a small 

pasture by themselves, ' 

SHOULDER SLiIP 

This is nothing more than a sprain of the shoulder muscles and should be treated 
in the same way. 

Treatment — The following liniment should be used : Oil of turpentine, aqua ammonia, and 
linseed oil (equal parts) ; or, spirits of camphor (10 parts), oil of turpentine (2 parts) ; apply to the 
part once a day. The latter liniment is a mild one, and considerable friction should be used in 
applying it. To help fill out atrophied muscles and treat a sprain of long standing, a blistering 
ointment (1 part powdered cantharides to 8 parts vaseline) should be used. 

SPRAINS OF TENDONS AND JOINTS 

These are treated in about the same manner as sprains of muscular tissue. 
Repair does not take place so rapidly, however, and sometimes will require very 
careful treatment. 

Treatment — Rest is essential. When in a region where a plaster cast can be applied, great 
benefit is derived from it. Other lines of treatment are hot and cold applications. These should 
be used until the inflammatory stage is passed, and then counter irritation from a blister or the 
firing iron can be applied. 



366 DISEASES OF THE KEPEODUCTIVE ORGANS 

CHOKING 

Foreign bodies in the pharynx or oesophagus of animals may be due to penetra- 
tion of the mucous membrane by sharp objects swallowed, to the attempt to swallow 
objects too large to pass down, or to foreign bodies becoming crossed in the gullet. 
If the animal eats greedily and swallows the food hastily it may choke. Sometimes 
choking results from -a paralysis of a portion of the gullet or a constriction in its 
walls that will not allow the food to pass along the canal. Frequently a dilation 
or sac-like distention occurs just in front of the constriction. 

Syniptonis — The animal stops feeding, may cough and salivate, and has an anxious look. 
If the choke is complete it is unable to drink water, and if it tries, the water will be discharged 
from the nostrils. The respirations may be hurried and difficult. In ruminants bloating may 
occur. Foreign bodies in the neck portion of the gullet may be detected with the hand, by 
pressing on the part. In cattle death may take place in a few hours. In horses the symptoms 
usually develop more slowly. When the choke is incomplete the symptoms may not be marked. 

Treatment — Foreign bodies in the upper part of the gullet and in the pharynx in cattle can 
be removed with the hand. In the larger domestic animals one may be able to gradually force the 
body back into the mouth by pressure with the hands just below the object. Mucilaginous drinks, 
as flaxseed tea, oil, etc., may be given. These may prove a source of danger, however, by passmg 
into the air passages, causing a pneumonia. In most cases it will be necessary to resort to the 
probaug. This instrument is for the purpose of pushing the obstruction on down the oesophagus 
and into the stomach. The probaug is easily passed in the ox, but in the horse the operation is 
more difficult and will require tlie assistance of the veterinarian. Broomsticks, rakes, or fork 
handles should never be substituted for the probang. The injury to the parts as a result of their 
use will often prove fatal. As a substitute for a probang in cattle a piece of ordinary garden hose, 
well oiled, may be used. The head should be well extended on the neck and held as quiet as 
possible. In cattle it may be necessary to puncture the rumen with the trocar and cannula and 
remove the gas. 

DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 

INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB 

{Metritis) 

Causes — This may be caused from injuries to the womb at the time of par- 
turition, dirty instruments or hands used in assisting in delivery, and from reten- 
tion of the foetal membranes. Unless antiseptics are used, this complication is of 
frequent occurrence in difficult cases of parturition. 

Symptoms — The inflammation will vary in intensity, depending upon its extent. If all 
the coats including the peritoneum are involved the symptoms are quite severe. The temperature 
becomes eleva-ted, pulse small and quick and the respirations hurried and shallow. The pain is 



VAGINITIS, STERILITY 867 

often severe, the animal grinding the teeth and showing evidence of coliclvy pains. Constipation 
is present at first, but gives way to diarrhea. There is abundant foul smelling discharge from 
the vulva The larger animals remain standing but finally become weak and lie down. Death 
usually occurs in from two to six days in fatal cases. It may t«^rminate in a chronic inflamma- 
tion {leucorrhea). 

Prevention — The preventioii consists in using the utmost care in securing cleanliness in all 
obstetrical operations. In difficult birth and in all cases where it is necessary to remove a dead 
foetus or membranes, the womb should be washed out with an antiseptic solution (creolin 3 parts 
and boiled water 98 parts). The same antiseptic wash twice a day should be used in any case 
of inflammation of the womb. The following may be given to reduce the fever: Acetanilid 
(3 ounces) and quinine sulphate (1 ounce); mix and divide into eight powders. Give one powder 
every three or four hours. If the animal is constipated a cathartic may be given. Tonics and 
good food must be allowed until recovery takes place. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE VAGINA 

Causes — Vaginitis generally accompanies inflammation of the womb. It 
'may follow difficult parturition, owing to injury of the parts by manipulation with 
the hands or instruments. 

Symptoms — When the vagina alone is inflamed the symptoms are not well marked. The 
parts are redder than normal, more or less swollen, and when the animal passes water there is 
evidence of pain. Ulceration and sloughing sometimes follow. The general symptoms are simi- 
lar to those of metritis. In mild cases recovery takes place without treatment. It may become 
chronic and a discharge be kept up continuously. 

Treatment — The treatment consists in washing the parts with an antiseptic solution, the 
same as used in inflammation of the womb. 

STERILITY 

Causes — Sterility may be temporary or permanent, and may be due to either 
the male or female. In the male it may be a functional trouble due to some con- 
dition that prevents copulation, or to an absence of spermatozoa. In the female 
it may be due to obstruction at the os uteri or neck of the womb, to failure to 
ovulate, or to a chronic diseased condition of the uterus, causing secretions that 
destroy the vitality of the male element. Other causes in both are abuse of the 
generative organs, bad hygiene, insufficient exercise, and overfeeding. Hybrids 
are nearly always sterile. 

Treatment — The treatment will depend upon the cause. If due to unhygienic conditions 
or to overfattening, as is often the case with show stock, these should be corrected. All animals 
should have a reasonable amount of exercise, but should not be overworked. The male should 
not be permitted to copulate too frequently. If the trouble be due to obstruction at the mouth 
of the womb, this should be dilated. This operation is usually not very difficult. The intro- 



368 DISEASES OF THE REPEODUCTIVE ORGANS 

diiction of the oiled hand will nearly always suffice. Occasionally surgical means are necessary. 
If there is chronic disease, this must be treated as already indicated for inflammation of the womb. 
Stimulating drugs are of less service than is usually attributed to them. 

LEUCORRHEA 

This is a chronic iufiammation of tlie mucous membrane of the vagina or 
womb, and associated with a whitish discharge. 

Symptoms — The discharge may be white, glutinous, and odorless, or it may be chocolate 
colored and foul smelling. The tail and hind parts are usually soiled with it. The discharge may 
be continuous or intermittent. In mild cases the health is not impaired, but the animal is usually 
barren, or if it does become impregnated is quite likely to abort. Loss of appetite and unthrifti- 
ness occur in severe cases. 

Treatment — The disease, if not of too long standing, will yield to treatment quite readily. 
The use of the following wash is advisable : Permanganate of potash (3 parts) and boiled water 
(98 parts). Inject twice a day and keep up the treatment for several weeks or until the secretions 
become normal. The 2 per cent creolin solution will answer very well. 

CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER 

Congestion of the udder is more common in the cow than in any of the other 
domestic animals. The most common cause is incomplete milking or milking at 
irregular times. It may be due to obstruction pf the milk duct. Other causes are 
injuries, as from running or being stepped upon by the stable mate ; infection from 
germs ; and cold. Congestion may lead to active inflammation. 

Symptoms — The udder is swollen, tense, and hard This may be limited to one-quarter 
or a half, or may involve the whole gland. The secretion is diminished and may be streaked with 
blood. At times it may be lumpy or coagulated. This condition will pass away in a short time 
or may go on to inflammation, the symptoms becoming more intense. The udder becomes swollen, 
hard, and painful. The milk from the affected quarters is changed. The general symptoms are 
loss of appetite, dullness, increase in temperature, and rapid pulse. The udder is hard and pits on 
pressure. Recovery takes place very quickly in the mild form, but in the severe cases abscesses 
sometimes form and a portion of the gland is destroyed. 

Treatment — Milk out the gland at frequent intervals. Apply a camphorated ointment over 
the affected part twice a day, and in mild cases this will be all that is necessary. In the more 
severe cases hot applications to the udder for several hours, or until the inflammation has sub- 
sided, will be found the best treatment. If the milk becomes mixed with pus it is advisable to 
wash out the udder with a weak solution of creolin, using a milking tube to which is attached a 
syringe, or a few feet of rubber tubing carrying a funnel at one end. If abscesses form they must 
be opened and drained the same as in any other part of the body. The following mixture is 
very good in relieving a sore, hardened condition: Vaseline (4 ounces), camphorated ointment 
(3 ounces), extract of belladonna (i ounce); mix and rub on the gland for about five minutes daily. 



MILK FEVER, RETENTION OF THE PLACENTA 869 

Another preparation is linseed oil (4 ounces) and spirits of turpentine (4 ounces) rubbed x)n in the 

same manner. 

SOKE TEATS, SCABBY TEATS 

Causes — Any irritation of the teats will cause them to become sore and 
scabby. During cold weather the wetting of the teat in milking is a common 
cause. Filth also may cause it. 

- Treatment — An ointment of vaseline (10 parts) and acetate of lead (1 part), rubbed on the 
sores after milking, will give good results. One or two drams acetate of lead to a pint of water 
also will answer. 

MILK FEVER 

{Parturient Paresis) 
This affection occurs in the cow, especially in heavy milkers in good condition. 
It occurs most often after the third, fourth, and fifth calving. There are many 
theories to account for the disease, the latest being that it is a form of self-poison- 
ing as a result of unusual work thrown on the milk-secreting cells. 

Syinptoins — This affection generally sets in between six hours and three days after calv- 
ing. The cow stops eating or ruminating, becomes uneasj', switches the tail, stamps the feet, 
and sometimes strikes the abdomen with the feet. There is more or less trembling at first and 
finally the animal will go down. Attempts will be made to rise, and at first with partial success. 
The paralytic symptoms become more prominent, the animal becomes stupid, throws the head 
from side to side in a half conscious manner, and finally draws the head up to one flank and 
remains unconscious. There is no movement of the bowels or from the bladder. The temper- 
ature is not increased, or only slightly. In the natural course the animal may make a sudden 
recovery after a few days or may linger along for five days or a week and die. The cases occur- 
ring shortly after calving are more unfavorable than those occurring the second or third day. 

Treatment — The treatment is much more successful now than formerly. The udder must 
be emptied and washed clean. A dram of iodide of potassium is dissolved in a quart of boiled 
water, and by means of a milking tube and a piece of rubber tubing and funnel it is introduced 
into each of the four quarters of the udder. The urine should be drawn with a catheter. Along 
with this treatment we may administer tincture of nux vomica (about 2 drams) three times a day. 
No attempt should be made to give large drenches. In emergency the udder may be injected with 
sterile water alone. If improvement is not noticed within twelve hours the operation should be 
repeated. Unless the udder and teats be carefully washed, the milking tube clean, and the water 
boiled, the udder may become inflamed. 

RETENTION OF AFTERBIRTH OR FCETAL MEMBRANES 

This accident is more common in the cow than in any of the other domestic 
animals. In ruminants the membranes are firmly attached to the walls of the 
uterus by a large number of cotyledons. In the mare the attachment is uniform 
and not nearly so firm, so that it comes away shortly after birth. Retention is 



870 DISEASES O^ THE REPEODUCTIVE ORGANS 

most frequent after abortion, esiDecially after contagious abortion. Abnormal 
adhesions between the maternal and fajtal membranes may occur, or occasionally a 
lack of sufficient expulsive energy may cause its retention. 

Syniptoms — The symptoms are so marked that a mistaken diagnosis is seldom made. 
Usually more or less of the membranes hang from the vulva, the tail and hind parts are more or 
less soiled, and decomposition begins early, causing an offensive characteristic odor If only a 
portion of the membranes have been retained, decomposition will begin in a few days and a 
shreddy discharge will occur. In many cases the membranes will all be discharged in about a 
week, and but little harm will result. In the more serious cases there is loss of appetite, with 
weakness, and the animal is generally sick. When retention occurs in the mare the condition is 
more serious than when it occurs in the cow. 

Treatment — The most successful method of removing the afterbirth is with the hands. 
The objection to other methods is that they are too slow, that a part may be left behind and give 
rise to trouble. One should not wait longer than one or two days in the cow, and in the mare but 
a short time after birth before removing the membranes, as the mouth of the womb may contract 
and imprison them. The operator should take special precautions to thoroughly wash off the 
parts with antiseptics (as a solution of creolin) and to use plenty of antiseptics and oil on the hand 
and arm. Loosen and remove the membranes with as little manipulation as possible, and work 
quickly. After the membranes are removed the uterus should be well washed out with a 2 per 
cent watery solution of creolin. llie operator must learn by experience not to mistake the large 
cotyledons on the walls of the uterus for a part of the afterbirth. 

PROLAPSUS OF THE VAGINA 

This accident occurs in pregnant animals, especially cows, toward the latter part 
of pregnancy or after parturition. The exciting cause is usually standing or lying in 
stalls that are lower behind than in front. Pasturing on hilly ground may also have 
the same effect. The tissue connecting the walls of the vagina with the walls of the 
pelvis may be lax and the heavy uterus, pressing back, displaces the vagina. Pro- 
lapse of the uterus may also occur after a difficult parturition. 

Syinptonis — In slight cases the prolapsus occurs only when the animal lies down. At first 
it appears as a small, round tumor the size of an egg within the lips of the vulva, and afterward 
may become the size of the fist. At first the parts do not protrude outside the vulva, but as the 
ligaments relax more and more the protrusion becomes greater. When the animal rises the parts 
return to the normal. In aggravated cases they do not return, but gradually protrude more and 
more, become irritated, and the surface denuded. Voiding the urine is interfered with and if the 
condition has been present for many hours the bladder will be greatly distended. This is an acci- 
dent that is likely to recur after apparent recovery. 

Treatment — The first essential in preventing this accident is to have level floors for the cows 
and shallow gutters to receive the manure. Replacement treatment should follow the accident as 
early as possible. Draw the urine with a catheter and replace the protruding part by careful, 



ABORTION 371 

direct pressure. If the case is of moderate degree, tie the animal in a narrow stall and place suffi- 
cient litter under the hind feet to raise her at least six inches above the forefeet. Keeping the 
animal in such a stable for a few days may suffice. In animals that strain badly it is advisable 
to place several strong deep sutures in the skin on each side of the vulva and across it after the 
vagina has been replaced. A cord tied tightly around the body just in front of the udder will tend 
to prevent straining. 

ABORTION 

When pregnancy is terminated by an early delivery, so that the young is unable 
to live, it is termed an abortion. If delivery occurs at too early a date, but the young 
is alive and can live, it is called a miscarriage. 

Causes — Abortion may be due to improper methods of handling or feeding, to 
too severe work, to accidents, and to acute and general diseases. Some females 
seem to have a predisposition to abort. There is also a form of abortion that is 
infectious or contagious and due to a specific germ. When introduced into a herd 
it usually causes a large proportion to abort, and it requires considerable time to 
stamp it ont. Mares are also subject to an infectious form of abortion. 

Syiiiptoins — The symptoms of abortion vary and depend upon the period at which the 
accident occurs as well as on the cause. If occurring in the later period of pregnancy and caused 
by an accident, the symptoms are well marked; if due to contagion or occurring in the early period 
of gestation, there may l)e little to indicate that anything is amiss. When due to contagion abor- 
tion nearly always takes place between the third and the seventh month, in the cow, and from the 
fourth to the ninth month in the mare. In the contagious form the act is usually easy, the fcEtus 
slipping away with so little evidence of labor that the cow often pays no attention to it. If the 
membranes do not come away with the foetus they soon disintegrate and are discharged a little at a 
time, keeping the hind parts soiled. If the accident occurs on pasture, the recurrence of heat may 
be the first intimation of its occurrence. After abortion from contagion the cow may have an 
unnatural rutting of a very exciting or violent character. 

Abortion due to accident is nearly always accompanied by more or less labor pain, as the parts 
are unprepared and rigid. The animal gives evidence of sickness. The foetal membranes are 
more often retained until they pass away as a discharge. Leucorrhea is a common complication. 

Treatment — The prevention consists in not exposing animals to conditions that will cause 
abortion. Cows should be excluded from pastures where there are steers, or where there are deep 
ditches ; they should have reasonable protection ; and spoiled ensilage or moldy food should be 
avoided. When the disease has been determined to be of a contagious nature, all aborting 
animals should be separated from the healthy and a rigid course of disinfection should follow. 
The foetus and placental membranes should be burned, the buttocks and tail washed free of all 
soiled material, using a strong carbolic or creolin solution. The vagina should be washed out 
with an injection of a 3 per cent creolin solution. This should be repeated daily for two weeks. 
The cows should not be permitted to breed for at least three months and then should be given a 
treatment a few days before breeding as a precautionary measure. The male should be washed 



372 LAMENESS OF HOESES 

out to avoid carrying the infection from one animal to another. This treatment has proved suc- 
cessful in our hands in a number of herds. Of the untreated non-aborting cows in a herd, a large 
proportion aborted the second year, while of those treated only a few aborted. 

LAMENESS 

Good legs are essential in a good horse, and the value of the animal depends 
largely on the condition of his extremities and their ability to do the work for 
which they are intended. This fact is frequently overlooked by experienced hoi-se- 
men, who pay more attention to general form and action than to sound legs. Im- 
perfect conformation may not interfere with a horse's usefulness, but if he be 
unsound in one or more of his limbs his capacity for work is greatly diminished, 
the degree depending upon the degree of the lameness or defect and the character 
of the work. 

Locating the Seat of the Lameness — Lameness is not a disease but 
a symptom, and greatly assists us in diagnosing the injury. The seat of the injury 
may be in a muscle, tendon, bone, or ligament. The degree of the lameness will 
vary, depending on the location and the character of the injury. When slight or 
hidden more skill may be required in diagnosing or locating it than the average 
horse owner possesses. Such cases require the services of a competent veterinarian. 

Two points are involved in the diagnosis : (a) the identification of the lame leg 
and (b) the locating of the disease. When there are local lesions, as a bony enlarge- 
ment, swelling, or inflammation, or if the action be characteristic, diagnosis is not 
difficult. The majority of cases are not so simple, but require systematic examina- 
tion in order to determine accurately the point involved. 

Exaniiuation — It is usually best to examine the animal under as many different condi- 
tions as possible ; while standing, at rest in the stall or on level ground, when moved at a walk, at 
a brisk and at a slow trot, when resting after exercise, or when moved after a brief period of rest. 
While the horse is being subjected to these different conditions the examiner should observe very 
closely every movement of the animal, and at the same time remember that negative symptoms of 
lameness in a part are almost as valuable in forming a diagnosis as are the positive symptoms. 

If a horse rests either front foot when standing at ease, it indicates some soreness in the_rested 
member. It is not uncommon, however, for a horse when standing quietly to rest a front and a 
hind foot of opposite sides, or rest the hind feet alternately. This is natural. 

"When a front foot is carried forward in a position of " pointing" or is held more or less sus- 
pended, the front or the toe of the foot resting on the floor, a soreness in some part of the limb is 
indicated. 

When a hind limb is affected it may be flexed or extended, the weight resting on the toe or 
the front part of the wall of the foot ; sometimes it is held clear of the ground. 



MODE OF EXAMINATION 873 

If both front feet are affected the animal may stand with the front feet forward, "pointing," 
and the hind ones well under the body. 

After observing the horse when at rest we should next examine him while in motion. This is 
the more important part of the examination, and is best done when the harness or blanket is 
removed and the animal is led with a loose halter and at a slow trot over a level road. The 
attendant should allow the animal full freedom of his head and trot him toward the observer as 
well as away from him. 

After making observations from these two positions the horse's movements should l)e studied 
from the sides. The effort of the animal to ' ' favor " the lame member enables us to detect the 
one in which the lameness exists. The pain suffered every time weight is thrown on the diseased 
limb causes him to step quickly with it and shift as much weight as possible to the well one. 

Injuries in various parts of the limb cause the horse to "favor" the limb differently, but in 
general the movements are much the same. 

When the foot of the injured extremity comes in contact with the grpund it is jerked up 
rather quickly, and, if a front one, gives the head a decided upward movement. 

When the foot of the sound limb comes to the ground more weight is thrown on it. 

If the lameness is in front the movement of the head is downward, or, using the common 
expression, the animal "nods." 

If the seat of the lameness is in the posterior extremity the haunch settles downward when 
weight is thrown on the sound leg, and when thrown on the diseased one the horse "nods," and 
there may be a decided upward movement of the hip. 

When lame in both front feet locomotion may be difficult, and in order to throw the weight 
on the limbs better able to bear it, the hind extremities are placed well under the body and the 
animal takes short, quick steps with the feet of the sore extremities, and vice versa, if the pos- 
terior ones are affected. 

If all four are affected, as is sometimes the case in laminitis or founder, the animal may lie 
down most of the time and generally refuses to move, or, when standing, shifts his weight from 
one foot to the other and changes as little as possible. 

The examiner should observe the animal very closely when it turns to the right or left, as the 
reluctancy with which it throws weight on the affected limb and the manner of "favoring" the 
part may point out the seat of the trouble. In some forms of lameness manipulating the limb 
with the hand may reveal the seat of the pain. This should be done by subjecting the affected 
region more or less forcibly to the different varieties of natural movement : extension, flexing the 
joints, drawing the limb out, or pulling it in. 

SHOULDER LAMENESS 

Causes — Heavy work, rapid driving, or work on rough roads or icy streets 
may cause the animal to sprain or wrench the softer structures in the region of 
the shoulder. In addition to these, rheumatism is a common cause of shoulder 
lameness. 

Symptoms — The animal may point with the foot of the lame extremity, holding it forward 
but squarely on the floor. Sometimes the limb is suspended from the side. When moved, the 
26 



374 LAMENESS OF HOESES 

motion in the upper part of the lame limb is more or less limited, the member being swimg out- 
ward and not lifted so high from the ground as the well one. Other peculiarities in the gait may 
be shown, as difficulty in stepping over moderately high objects. Manipulating the limb by mov- 
ing the shoulder joint through the different natural movements may help in locating the soreness. 
In hidden forms of shoulder lameaess a diagnosis is difficult and may be confounded with lame- 
ness in the region of the foot. 

Treatment — Rest is a very important part of the treatment. It is best to tie the patient in a 
single stall and keep it as quiet as possible. For a week or two it may be best to restrict his 
movements by tying him in such a way that he can not lie down, and by watering and feeding him 
in his stall. If nervous or restless, better results will follow if the horse is allowed to run in a 
small yard. Mild liniments or blisters may be applied to the affected region The following 
recipe may be used : Oil of turpentine, aqua ammonia, linseed oil (equal parts) ; mix and apply 
to the part once a day ; or, powdered cantharides (1 part), vaseline (8 parts) ; make into an ointment 
and rub on. Tie the animal up so that he can not rub or bite the part. 

SPLINTS 

Causes — The seat of the splint is between and on the sides of the splint and 
cannon bones. This is a very common blemish or nnsoundness and is generally 
located on the splint bones of the front foot, especially the inner one. The inflam- 
mation which is due to a sprain or a blow begins in that part of the covering of the 
bone and tissue that fixes the splint to the cannon bone and leads to a swelling and 
growth of bone varying in size according to the extent of the inflammation. Young 
horses are predisposed to splints. 

Symptoms — The lameness will vary and is seldom absent during the time the splint is 
developing. "High" splints are more apt to cause a lameness than a "low" one, and there is 
danger of the lameness continuing for a longer time. The knee is sometimes held stiffly and the 
animal limps worst when trotted over a hard road. The observer has such local symptoms as 
heat, swelling, and pain to guide him in forming a diagnosis. The lameness usually lasts about 
three weeks. 

Treatment — Rest and cold applications to the part are indicated during the inflammatory 
period. Following this a water solution of iodine can be used ; iodine crystals (2 parts), iodide 
of potassium (1 part), water (30 parts) ; mix and apply to the part with a stiff brush once a day. 
In obstinate cases the firing-iron should be used. 

SPRAINS OF TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE FOOT 

The structures most commonly injured here are the large tendons just back of 
the cannon bone and the large ligament, the suspensory, that lies along the face 
of this bone, and the back and sides of the fetlock. 

Causes — The character of the work and the condition of the road predispose 
horses to this form of lameness. Trotting and running horses more often suffer 



SPKAINS, RING-BONE 375 

from injuries to tendons and ligaments than draft horses. Catching the foot in a 
rut, car track, etc., may also cause it. 

Symptoms — The symptoms will vary with the severity of the' injury. The lameness 
appears suddenly. When at ease the fetlock joint is flexed and the foot is rested on the toe. The 
lameness is sometimes very severe and the animal refuses to use the affected foot. The injured 
tissues are usually warm and swollen, and when the tendon is ruptured it has a bowed appearance. 
Soreness in the fetlock region may cause the animal to knuckle over. 

Treatment — If the injury is slight, rest and cold bandages will remove the soreness in about 
a week. When the lameness is severe complete rest to the part can be obtained by the application 
of a plaster-of-paris bandage. The bandage can be made by cutting cheese-cloth into strips about 
four or five inches wide and about fifteen or twenty feet long. The plaster of paris can be rubbed 
on the bandage as it is being rolled. It is then placed in warm water in which a little salt has 
been dissolved, until wet through, and then rolled on the part. The cast should reach as high as 
the knee and as low as the hoof, and in the majority of cases should remain on from two to four 
weeks. To protect the skin it is best before applying the plaster bandage to use a light cheese- 
cloth bandage. When removed a cantharides blister can be applied. Good results sometimes 
follow a period of rest and the application of a mild liniment. 

RING-BONE 

A ring-bone is a bony enlargement in the region of the coronary joint. The 
size of the enlargement or exostosis will vary and may be seen on the back, front, 
or the sides of the region, sometimes forming a thick ring encircling the foot just 
above the hoof. In the articular form of ring-bone the articulation between the first 
two bones of the digit is involved. In the periarticular form the thickening is on 
the outside of the articulation and on the faces of the two fii'st bones of the digit. 

Causes — Bruises, sprains, blows, or any injury to the region of the coronet 
may cause it. A predisposition to ring-bones may be transmitted to the offspring 
and may be traced to small, badly shaped joints and faulty conformation of the 
limbs of the sire or dam. 

Symptoms — There may be difficulty in locating this form of lameness unless the enlarge- 
ment is well developed. Lameness is nearly always present. It may disappear after a long rest 
or when the animal is exercised. The degree of soreness will vary and does not always depend 
upon the size of the enlargement, and is more marked when the weight is thrown on the foot. 
In chronic cases of lameness, and when the enlargement is large and low down, the prognosis is 
unfavorable. 

Treatment — Proper attention given to the foot of young animals, keeping the walls of the 
aoof pared and in balance, and the careful selection of breeding animals, are useful preventive 
precautions. The treatment consists in resting the animal, balancing the foot, and counter-irrita- 
tion over the diseased region by means of blisters or the firing-iron. The latter is to be preferred. 



376 LAMENESS OF HORSES 

SIDEBONES 

This is a disease of the lateral cartilages of the foot and is especially common in 
draft horses and peculiar to the fore feet. Occasionally sidebones appear in the 
hind feet, but seldom cause lameness. These cartilages are attached to the heel of 
the pedal bone and can be detected by pressing on the side of the heel just above 
the coronary band. They form part of the elastic apparatus of the loot and when 
inflamed, lime salts may be deposited in the cartilaginous tissue and it is trans- 
formed to bone. 

Causes — Weak, poorly formed feet predispose a horse to sidebones. Certain 
conditions, such as heavy work over paved streets, high-heeled shoes or high calk- 
ings may excite their growth. Injuries to the cartilages may set nj) an inflammatory 
process and result in the formation of the bony groAvths. 

Symptoms — A sidebone develops slowly and may not cause lameness at first. The animal 
may have a "stilty" action, step short with the affected feet and its movements lack the normal 
elasticity. After exercise the gait may be more nearly natural. When the animal is lame the toe 
of the foot touches the ground first and it steps short with the diseased feet. Instead of the 
cartilage feeling elastic when pressed on, it is rigid and may form a prominent enlargement. 

Treatment — The growth of the sidebone may be arrested by rest and counter-irritation 
from a blister or the firing-iron and the soreness partially removed. Animals with sidebones 
should generally be discarded for breeding purposes. 

NAVICULAR DISEASE 

(Coffin Joint Lameness) 

This is a chronic inflammation of the structures in the region of the "coffin 
joint," the gliding surface of the navicular bone, and th« navicular bone with the 
flexor tendon of the foot at this point. 

Causes ^ — Well bred horses are more commonly affected with this form of lame- 
ness than roughly bred ones. Narrow, high heels, long pasterns and too long a toe 
may predispose a horse to the disease. The character of the work is also a predis- 
posing factor. Hurried, rapid movements throw considerable strain on this region 
and may result in injury to the part. This is one of the reasons why it is more 
common in driving and running horses than in slow-going work animals. Bad 
shoeing and punctured wounds in the region of the articulation "may also cause it. 
One or both front feet may be affected. 

Symptoms — The lameness begins gradually and at first the soreness may disappear with 
exercise or after a long rest. The character of the gait is stiff and the horse frequently stumbles ; 
this is especially noticeable when trotted over rough ground. When the disease is well advanced 



CORNS, SANDCRACKS 377 

the animal may suffer severe pain wlien weight is thrown on the diseased foot. When standing 
in the stable it will " point" with the diseased foot, resting it on the toe, sometimes on the front 
of the opposite foot. The articulation is so hidden that it is difficult to detect the local inflam- 
mation or cause the animal to flinch by applying pressure over the region. In time, as but little 
weight is thrown on the foot it becomes smaller, contracted at the heel, more upright, the frog 
atrophies, and the wall frequently appears uneven. One or both front feet may be affected. 
The prognosis is very unfavorable. 

Treatment — Allowing the animal to run on pasture, keeping the feet moist, and blisters 
applied to the coronet, may check the disease in its first stages. In shoeing the horse it is best to 
shorten the toe and raise the heel. The lameness can be removed by performing neurectomy 
(cutting the nerve supply to the foot and destroying the sensation in the part). 

CORNS 

A corn is an injui-y to the sensitive tissue of the sole, quarters, or bars of the 
foot. It consists in a bleeding from capillary blood-vessels that are pressed on or 
ruptured, and the surface of the horny tissue becomes stained a reddish color. 
If the part is infected by pus germs and matter forms it is termed a moist corn. 
If the injflammation is absent and the tissue dry it is called a dry corn. 

Causes — Weak, badly formed feet are predisposed to corns. The principal 
external causes are faulty shoeing and allowing the shoes to stay on for too long 
a time. 

Symptoms — Corns sometimes cause considerable lameness. Suppurative corns are the 
most troublesome and require immediate attention. The foot is inflamed and may be swollen at 
the coronet. 

Treatment — In badly formed feet it is impossible to stop the development of corns. The 
shoeing should receive the nefcessary attention. In bad cases removing the shoes and turning the 
horse on pasture is the best line of treatment. In dry corns little more is required. If the foot is 
inflamed a flaxseed poultice should be applied, and when pus is formed an exit should be provided 
for it, the foot kept clean, and the corn washed daily with an antiseptic wash (creolin, 3 parts, to 
98 parts of water). 

SANDCRACKS, QUARTERCRACKS 

A sandcrack or quartercrack is a fissure in the wall of the foot running in the 
same direction as the horny fibers. Its position and extent varies and may occur 
at the toe, quarter, heel, or bar, and may be deep and extend from the lower margin 
of the wall to the coronary band, or only a portion of the distance. When deep 
and complete it may cause the animal to go lame. The pain is caused by the crack 
opening up when weight is thrown on the foot, and when the weight is removed it 
will close, pinching and injuring the sensitive laminse that lie just beneath the 
horny wall. Cracks of long standing usually have thick rough margins. 



378 LAMENESS OF HORSES 

Causes — The horny wall is secreted by the coronary band. Any injury to this 
secreting tissue may cause a fissure in the wall. This is one of the most common 
causes of sandcrack. If the bearing surface of the hoof is not properly trimmed, 
or the bearing surface of the shoe is uneven, a fissure may form. Weak walls and 
excessive drying of the feet may also cause it. Contracted upright feet are predis- 
posed to sandcracks. 

Treatment — Preventive treatment is very important and consists in avoiding conditions 
favorable for their development. Recovery can be assisted by preventing motion between the mar- 
gins of the crack. This can be done by thinning the wall along the margins of the fissure and cut- 
ting out the bearing margin of the wall on each side of the fissure. If the sandcrack is at the toe 
extra nail holes should be made in the shoe and a nail driven in the wall a little to each side of the 
crack. If on the quarter, that portion of the wall lying back of the crack and below it should be 
pared down till quite thin and the wall shortened so that it does not rest on the shoe. A bar shoe 
that does not give frog pressure is better in quartercrack than a common shoe, as it limits the 
expansion of the foot at the heel. To stimulate the secretion of horn a cantharides blister can be 
applied just above the coronary band, every two or three weeks. 

"STIFLE OUT" 

{Luxation of the Patella) 

This is a common accident in horses and mules. Young, immature animals are 
more apt to suffer from a luxation or displacement of the patella than when mature. 
The displacement is usually upward or outward; 

Causes — The patella is applied to a pully-like surface at the lower extremity 
of the thigh bone, the outer lip of the pully being small. It is held here by liga- 
ments below that attach it to the leg bone and by tendons above. If these tendons 
or ligaments become relaxed or weak, it may permit of a slipj)ing out of the patella. 
Strains of the ligaments, or a rupture of the internal lateral one, may also cause it. 
Upright limbs and oblique quarters are said to predispose an animal to it. 

Symptoms — The animal stands quietly as a rule, the affected leg held stiffly and extended 
backward. If both hind limbs are affected the animal can not move. When the animal moves 
forward, it hops on the well leg and carries the affected one or drags it on the toe. The symptoms 
are so characteristic in luxation of the patella that it can be diagnosed from a distance. In com- 
plete or incomplete lateral displacement of the patella the joints may be flexed and the animal is 
very lame when weight is thrown on the affected leg. In most cases of luxation of the patella the 
prognosis is favorable. The condition may return to the normal without any assistance, but is apt 
to return again when the animal takes a few steps, and finally disappears after the animal has been 
worked a short time. When due to a rupture of the internal ligament or to weakness, it may 
terminate less favorably. It is not uncommon for the accident to recur. 

Treatment — It is not difficult to return the patella to its natural position, but its retention 



SPAVIN 379 

is more difficult. The animal snould be rested and prevented from throwing weight on the affected 
leg. This can be done by tying the animal in a single stall, putting a collar on the neck, tying one 
end of a rope about 13 feet long to it, and running the other end back between the front legs 
to a ring in a strap buckled around the pastern of the affected leg, then back to the collar. The 
leg can then be pulled forward and the luxation reduced. After this has been done the rope can 
be tied and the toe allowed to touch the ground. The animal should be confined in this manner 
for at least one week. A blister (1 part cantharides to 8 parts vaseline) should be applied to the 
front and the outside of the joint. 

SPAVIN 

A spavin is a chronic inflammation of the hock, involving tlie articular surfaces 
of the small bones, the ligaments, and synovial membranes. The upper extremities 
of the cannon or splint bones may be involved as well, and in advanced cases the 
articulations between the smaller hock bones are entirely obliterated. 

Causes — A predisposition to spavin depends on the conformation of the hind 
limb and body. Heavily muscled hind quarters and straight hind legs predispose 
an animal to strains or injuries to the hock. The external causes are sprains caused 
by slipping, turning quickly, rearing, rapid work, and pulling heavy loads. Kicks 
on the hock may also cause it. Spavin is more common in young than in old horses, 
due to the incomplete development of the bones, ligaments, etc. 

Syniptonis — When no enlargement is present on the hock, the diagnosis is sometimes diffi- 
cult and uncertain. The enlargement is usually toward the front and side of the hock and when 
small will require considerable knowledge of the appearance of the normal hock joint in order to 
detect it. The best position to observe a spavin is from the front or a little to one side in order to 
compare the two hock joints, and note their differences in shape. Coarse hocks, however, should 
not be mistaken for a spavin. Both hocks may be enlarged and the animal go lame in both, or an 
enlargement may be present and not be accompanied by lameness. The lameness usually begins 
gradually and disappears shortly after exercise but will reappear if the horse is rested and again 
exercised. In old cases the lameness persists. The extension of the hock is incomplete, the step 
is short and quick, there is an extra movement of the quarter and the animal goes on the toe. 
When the animal is turned toward the well side the soreness may be increased The "spavin 
test" may be of value in diagnosing an "occult" spavin, and consists in picking up the foot, flex- 
ing the limb and keeping it flexed for several minutes, then letting the foot down quickly and 
moving the animal in a trot. This will increase the soreness and the animal will limp badly. The 
prognosis is always uncertain and should be guided by the conformation of the limb, character of 
the work required of the animal, position of the enlargement, and the degree of the lameness. 
The enlargement usually remains about the same. 

Treatment — The object of the treatment is to bring about a union between the smaller 
bones. This may require weeks or months. To do this it is necessary to rest the horse, and the 
more complete the rest the better are the chances for recovery. He should be kept in a single 
stall and must not be led out for the purpose of feeding or watering. To promote a secondary 



380 lame:n'ess of hoeses 

inflammation in the part and favor the bony union, counter-irritation from a blister or the firing- 
iron should be used. Blisters, unless in the very first stages of the disease, are too superficial in 
their action to cause a permanent recovery. The firing-iron is to be preferred. In all cases the 
horse should be rested at least four weeks and in some cases it is necessary to repeat the irritation. 

BOG SPAVIN 

This consists in a distention of the capsular ligament and synovial membrane 
of the hock joint. Bog spavins are more commonly seen in young horses and in 
upright or " fleshy " hocks. The exciting cause is frequently a sprain, causing 
an inflammation of the synovial membrane and an abundant secretion of synovia. 
Unless the part is inflamed the horse does not go lame. The most noticeable symp- 
tom is the swelling toward the anterior and inner part, sometimes the posterior 
part of the joint. In mature animals the swelling is generally permanent, but in 
immature, growing animals may disappear, sometimes without treatment. 

Treatment — When lame and if the inflammation is acute, rest and cooling applications (cold 
bandages) are necessary. Following this treatment the hock should be blistered or cauterized with 
the firing-iron. In colts it is well to blister the spavin every few weeks with a blistering ointment 
(powdered cantharides 1 part, vaseline 8 parts). 

CAPPED HOCK 

All swellings on the point of the hock are called '' capped hock." This injury 
is generally due to a bruise caused by the animal kicking against the side of the 
stall or when in harness. The swelling may be due to an injury to the skin and 
subcutaneous tissue alone, or more important structures may be involved, as the 
tendinous cap over the point of the hock and the synovial bursa. When the skin is 
involved it pits on pressure ; if the tendon, it is hard, and if the bursa, soft and 
elastic. When the injury is of recent origin the part is warm and tender. In some 
cases the swelling is very large. Unless badly inflamed it does not cause lameness. 

Treatment — When of recent origin cold applications should be used. This must be followed 
by blisters. If the swelling feels soft it should be opened and the fluid allowed to escape. The 
operation requires skill and should be attempted only by an experienced veterinarian. 

CURB 

This term is applied to all swellings on the posterior part of the hock: In some 
individuals an excessive development of the bones in this region gives to the hock 
the appearance of being curbed. Horses with " cow hocks " are predisposed to this 
form of unsoundness, due to the fact that its extreme length gives the powerful 
muscles attached to its summit a greater strain on tlie ligaments at the back part 



BOOKS ON ANIMAL DISEASES 381 

of the hock. " Tied in " hocks are weak at this point. The exciting causes of 
curbs are jumping, rearing, heavy pulling, and kicks or blows on this region. 

Symptoiiis — The shape of the back part of the hock is changed and when observed from 
the side, instead of a straight line from the point of the hock to the upper end of the cannon 
region, a swelling that bulges backward is seen toward the lower part. The thickening in the 
part may be due to a disease of the tendon, its sheath or the skin. It may also be due to an 
inflammation of the bone and the resulting long enlargement. A careful examination with the 
lingers will enable us to detect the different tissues involved. It is only when the parts are sore 
and inflamed, as a result of the injury, that the animal goes lame. The lameness will resemble 
that caused by a sprain, and will disappear in a few weeks. The enlargement usually persists. 

Treatment — At the beginning, if the ligament and surrounding tissues are inflamed, cold 
bandages should be used, together with rubbing of the part. After the inflammation has subsided 
a water solution of iodine or blisters can be applied. Rest is a necessary part of the treatment 
during the inflammatory stage, and one should not be in too much of a hurry to put the animal to 
work, as the part may again become injured. If the curb does not respond to the ordinary treat- 
ment, cauterization with the flring-iron should be resorted to. 




PUBLICATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF FARM 

ANIMALS 

Abortion, Contagious. ByC.E. Marsh. Bulletin 13. Michigan Agricultural Experiment 

Station, Agricultural College, Mich 

Actinomycosis or Lumpy-Jaw. Circular ,7, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States 

Department of Agriculture : 

Animal Castration. By A. Liautard. Wm. E. Je7ikins, m. Y $2.00 

A clearly written work upon the subject. 

Cattle, Diseases of. Special Report, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 65 

Probably the best work in popular form upon the diseases of cattle. 

Cattle, Hydrophobia in. By J. B. Paige. Bulletin 27. Massachusetts Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, Amherst, Mass 

Cattle, Nitrate of Soda Poisoning of. By J. B. Paige. Bulletin 27. MassacJiusetts 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass — — 

Cattle, Nitrate op Soda Poisoning of. By N. S. Mayo. Bulletin 49. Kansas Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kan 

Cattle, Scabies in. Farmers' Bulletin 152. United States Department of Agriculture 



382 BOOKS ON ANIMAL DISEASES 

Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals. By A Chaveau and G. Flem 

ing. D. Appletond^ Co.,'N. Y $7.00 

Technical. 

Comparative Physiology. By Wesley Mills. W^n. R. Jenkins, N. Y 

Dehorning Cattle. By J. F. Hickman. Report, OJiio Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Wooster, Ohio (1896) 

Dehorning, Effects on Milk. By C D Smith and T. L. Haecker. Bulletin 19. Min- 
nesota Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn 

Dehorning with Chemicals. By L. H. Adams. Report, Wisconsin Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, Madison, Wis. (1891) 

Dental Surgery, Veterinary. By T. D. Hinebauch. TFm. E. Jenkins, N. Y. . . 2.00 
An exhaustive treatise. 

Dog, Diseases of the. Translated by A. Glass from George Miiller. W. E. Hoskins. 

Philadelphia 5.00 

Eye Diseases ofJ)omestic Animals. By C. A. Gary. Bulletin 43. College Agriculturni 

Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala 

Farmer's Veterinary Adviser. By James Law. James Laic, Ithaca, N. Y. . . . 3.00 
Written in popular style. 

Glanders. By T.Butler. Bulletin 16. Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station Kgv\- 

cultural College, Miss 

Glanders. By C. A. Gary. Bulletin 35. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Auburn, Ala 

Glanders. By E. A. A. Grange. Bulletin 78. Michigan Agricultural Bxp&t'iment Station,^ 

Agricultural College, Mich 

Glanders. By W. L. Williams. Bulletin 4. Montaiui Agricultural Exjjeriment Station, 

Bozeman, Mont 

Hog Cholera. Report, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agri- 
culture .*.... 

Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. By A. W. Bitting. Bulletin of the Indiana Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station, LaFayette, Ind 

Hog, Diseases of the. By A. W. Bitting and R. A Craig. Report, Indiana Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Indianapolis, Ind. (1900) 

Hogs, Soaps as a Cause of Death Among. By V. A. Moore. Bulletin 141. Cornell 

Agncultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Horse, Diseases of the. Report, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department 

of Agriculture 65 

A very clearly written popular work on the diseases of the horse. 

Horse, The Clinical Diagnosis of Lameness in the. By W. E. A. Wyman. Wm. 

- R. Jenkins, N. Y • • 2.50 

A work intended for veterinarians. 
Horse, The Exterior op the. Translated from A. Gobaux and G. Barrier by S. Har- 

ger. J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia 5.00 

The best work upon conformation and soundness. 



BOOKS ON ANIMAL DISEASES 383 

Horse, The Foot of the. By David Roberge. Wm. R. Jenkins, N. Y $5.00 

An exhaustive treiatise with special reference to correcting lameness by shoeing. 
Horses, Enzootic Cerebritis of. By N. S. Mayo. Bulletin 24. Kansas Agricultural 

Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kan 

Horses, Influenza in. By T. D. Hinebauch. Bulletin 27. Indiana Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, LaFayette, Ind 

Horses, Lameness op. By A. Liautard. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y 2.50 

A technical work. 
Horses, Millet Disease in. By T. D. Hinebauch. Bulletin 27. North Dakota Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, Fargo, N, D 

Horses: Sound and Unsound. By J. Irvine Lupton. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. . . . 1.35 

a somewhat popular treatise. 
Horses, The Examination op, as to Soundness and Selection as to Purchase. By 

Edward Sewell. Wm. B. Jenkins, '^.Y 1.50 

Useful to buyers and handlers. 
Horses and Mules, Colic in. By W. E. A. Wyman. Bulletin 22. Smth Carolina Ex- 
periment Station, Clemson, S. C 

Horses and Mules, Lameness in. By W. E. A. Wyman. Bulletin-23. Soutli Carolina 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson, S. C 

Horseshoeing. By E. P. Niles. Bulletins 46 and 54. Virginia Agricultural Experiment 

Station, Blacksburg, Va 

Horseshoeing, A Hand-Book of. By J. A. W. Dollar. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. . . 4.75 

a practical treatise on general shoeing and shoeing for lameness. 
Meat Inspection. By C. A. Gary. Bulletin 81. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, Auburn, Ala 

Obstetrics, Bovine. Translated from M. G. DeBruin by W. E. A. Wyman. Wm. B. 

Jenkins, N. Y 5.00 

Technical. 
Obstetrics, Veterinary. By George Fleming .... 6 . 25 

Technical. 

Operative Veterinary Surgery. By H. Moller. Wm. B. Jenkins, N, Y. . . . . 5.25 

Technical. 
Operative Veterinary Surgery, Manual op. By A. Liautard. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. 6.00 

Technical. 
Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Domestic Animals. Translated by George 

Fleming from L. G. Neumann 7.50 

Technical. 
Pathology and Therapeutics of the Domestic Animals. Translated by M. H. Hayes 

from Friedberg and Frohner(Vol. I.) W. T. Keener (& Co 3.75 

An exhaustive treatise. English translation. 
Pathology and Therapeutics of the Domestic Animals. By Friedberg and Frohner. 

W. J. Dornan, Philadelphia 6.00 

An exhaustive treatise. American translation. 

Sheep, Diseases of. By J. H. Steel. Longmans, Green <& Co., N. Y 4.50 

An English work. 



384 BOOKS ON ANIMAL DISEASES 

Sheep, Foot-bot of. By E. A. A. Grange. Bulletin 74. MicMc/an Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, Agricultural College, Mich 

Sheep Scab. By C. P. Gillett. Bulletin 38. Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Fort Collins, Colo . . . 

Sheep Scab. Bulletin 21, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agri- 
culture $0.15 

Sheep Scab. By A. W. Bitting. Bulletin 80. Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, 

LaFayette, Ind 

Swine Plague and Hog Cholera, Serum Treatment of. Bulletin 23, Bureau of 

Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture 05 

Tuberculin Test, The. By C. E. Marshall. Bulletin 159. Michigan Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, Agricultural College, Mich 

Tuberculosis, Legislation with Regard to Bovine. Bulletin 28. Bureau of Animal 

Industry. United States Department of Agriculture 10 

Tuberculosis and the Tuberculin Test. By B. Bang. Bulletin 41. Massachusetts 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass 

Tuberculosis and the Tuberculin Test. By M. H. Reynolds. Bulletin 51. Minne- 
sota Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn 

Tuberculosis in Relation to Animal Industry and Public Health. By J. B. Law. 

Bulletin 65. Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y 

Veterinary Anatomy. By Vaughan and Strangeway 5.00 

a technical work. 

Veterinary Hygiene, A Manual of. By F. Smith. Wm. R. Jenkins, N. Y. . .3.35 

Easily understood by laynian as well as veterinarian. 

Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics. By K. Winslow. Wm. R. Jenkins, 

N. Y 6.00 

A work for the profession. 
Veterinary Medicine. By James Law. (Vols. I. to III. published.) James Law, 

Ithaca, N. Y. H-OO 

The best work of the kind in the English language. 
Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, Clinical. By J. A. W. Dollar. Wm. R. Jenkins, 

jq^ Y ^'^iS 

a work for the profession. 

Veterinary Medicines. By Finlay Dun. Wm. R. Jenkins, l^.Y 8.75 

Deals with the action of drugs. 
Veterinary Physiology, A Manual of. By F. Smith. Wm.. R. Jenkins, N. Y. . . 3.75 

a very complete treatise upon the physiology of the domestic animals. 
Veterinary Therapeutics and Pharmacology. By E. W. Hoare. Wm. R. Jenkins, 

N. Y 3.7S 

A work for veterinarians. 
Water Supply for Animals. By A. W. Bitting. Bulletin 70. Indiana Agricultural 

Evperiment Station, LaFayette, Ind 

Wounds, Antiseptic Treatment op. By E. P. Niles. Bulletins 13 and 18. Virginia 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va 



The Silo in Modern Agriculture 

By F. W. WoLL 
Assistant Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Wisconsin 

WHY BUILD A SILO? 

Economy of Nutrients — The silo enables us to preserve a greater 
quantity of the food materials of the original fodder, for the feeding of farm 
animals, than is possible by any other system of preservation now known. The 
necessary losses of nutrients incurred in the siloing process need not exceed 10 per 
cent, and by beginning to feed from the silo soon after it has beBn filled, the loss 
will be reduced to a minimum which may not be far from 5 per cent. In haymak- 
ing or field-curing of coarse fodders, there is an unavoidable loss of leaves and other 
tender parts, and in curing fodder corn there will be a fermentative loss of toward 
10 per cent under the best of conditions, or about as much as is lost in the silo. 
The loss of dry matter will approach 25 per cent in ordinary farm practice, and 
will even exceed this figure unless special precautions are taken in the handling of 
the fodder. 

Economy of Material — Crops unfit for haymaking may be preserved in 
the silo and changed into a palatable food. In case of fodder famine the silo may 
thus help the farmer to carry his cattle through the winter. 

Where haymaking is precluded, as is sometimes the case with second-crop clover, 
rowen, etc., on account of rainy weather late in the season, the silo will preserve 
the crop. 

Economy of Land — More cattle can be kept on a given area of land when 
silage is fed than is otherwise the case. The silo in this respect furnishes a similar 
advantage over field-curing fodders as does the soiling system over that of pastur- 
ing cattle. Pasturing cattle is an expensive method of feeding, as far as the use of 
the land goes, and can only be practiced to advantage where this is cheap. As the 
land increases in value, more stock must be kept on the same area in order to cor- 
respondingly increase the profits from the land. 



(385) 



386 WHY BUILD A SILO ? 

Economy of Time and Storage Space — Eainy weather is a disad- 
vantage in filling silos as in most other farm operations, but when the silo is once 
filled, the farmer is independent of the weather throughout the season. 

Less room is required for the storage in a silo of the product from an acre of 
land than in cured condition in a barn. 

Economy of Labor — An acre of corn can be placed in the silo at less cost 
than the same quantity can be put up as cured fodder. To derive full benefit from 
the food materials in the field-cured fodder corn, it must be run through a feed 
cutter in small portions at a time ; the corn must, in most cases, be husked, cribbed, 
and either ground, cob and all, or shelled and ground. In siloing the whole corn 
plant, the cutting is all done at once. 

Uniformity of Feed — The silo furnishes a feed of uniform quality, avail- 
able at any time during the whole winter or year. This is of advantage perhaps 
particularly in case of dairy cows and sheep, since these animals are especially sensi- 
tive to sudden changes in the feed. 

Silage as a Preparatory Ration — Silage is of special value for feed- 
ing preparatory to turning cattle on to the watery pasture grass in the spring. 
When turned out in the spring, steers will be apt to lose weight, no matter whether 
silage or dry feed has been fed, unless they are fed some grain during the first week 
or two after they are let out. 

Silage as a Bowel Regulator — Succulent food is nature's food. The 
influence of well-preserved silage on the digestion and general health of animals is 
very beneficial, according to the unanimous testimony of good authorities. It is 
a mild laxative, and acts in this way very similarly to green fodders. 

By filling the silo with clover or other green summer crops early in the season, 
a valuable succulent feed will be at hand at a time when pastures in most regions 
are apt to give out ; then again, the silo may be filled with corn when this is in the 
roasting stage, and the land thus entirely cleared earlier than when the corn is left 
to mature and the corn fodder shocked on the land, making it possible to finish the 
fall plowing sooner and to seed the land down to grass or to winter grain. 

THE FEEDIIVG OF SILAGE 

Silage may be fed with advantage to all classes of farm animals — milch cows, 
steers, horses, mules, sheep, swine, and even poultry — but always in connection 
with some dry roughage. The nearer maturity the corn is when cut for the silo, 
the more silage may safely be fed at a time, but it is always well to avoid feeding it 
excessively. 



SILAGE KATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS 



387 



SILAGE FOR MILCH COWS 

Silage is par excellence a cow feed. As with other farm animals, cows fed silage 
should receive other roughage^ in the shape of corn stalks, hay, etc. 



1 To illustrate the quantities and combinations in 
which silage may be fed to milch cows, we give here- 
with a number of practical feed rations published in 
two bulletins by the author, viz. : Nos. 33 and 38, of the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station (October, 1892, and Jan- 
uary, 1894): 

American Silage Rations for Dairy Cows 

1. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; hay, 6% lbs.; corn and cob 
meal, 5 lbs.; ground oats, 5 lbs.; linseed meal, 3 lbs. 

2. Corn silage, 27 lbs.; dry fodder corn, 8 lbs.; 
clover hay, 6 lbs. ; oat straw, 1% lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; 
linseed meal, 4 lbs. 

3. Com silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, 5 lbs. ; malt sprouts, 4 
lbs.; wheat bran, 2^4 'bs.; cotton-seed meal, 11/2 lbs. 

4. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; cut sheaf oats, 6 lbs. ; mixed 
meadow hay, 10 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; linseed meal, 

2 lbs. 

5. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; cut cornstalks, 12 lbs.; 
wheat bran, 3% lbs. ; corn meal, 3 lbs. ; oats, 314 lbs., with 
a sprinkling of peas. 

6. Corn silage, 32 lbs. ; clover silage, 22 lbs. ; clover 
and timothy hay mixed, 5 lbs.; wheat bran, 6 lbs.; 
ground oats, 4 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 3 lbs. 

7. Corn silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, about 11 lbs. ; wheat 
bran, 3% lbs. ; ground oats, 2V& lbs. ; linseed meal (O. P.) 
21/3 lbs. 

8. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; hay, 8 lbs. ; corn fodder, 6 
lbs. ; ground oats, 4 lbs. • pea meal, 2 lbs. 

9. Com silage, 40 lbs. ; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; wheat 
bran, 6 lbs. ; pea meal, 2 lbs. 

10. Whole com silage, 25 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 lbs. ; 
wheat bran, 10 lbs. 

11. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; clover hay, 5 lbs.; timothy 
hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4^^ lbs.; middlings, 4t.^ lbs. 

12. Corn silage, 45 lbs. ; clover hay, 12 lbs. ; wheat 
shorts, 8 lbs. ; corn meal, 4 lbs. 

13. Corn silage, 24 lbs. ; corn fodder, 15 lbs. ; clover 
hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 5 lbs. 

14. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; alfalfa hay, 15 lbs. ; wheat 
bran, 4 lbs. ; corn chop, 4 lbs. 

15. Corn silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, 10 lbs. ; wheat bran, 

3 lbs. ; corn and cob meal, 3 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 
lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. 

16. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 4 lbs. ; grano- 
gluten feed, 4 lbs. 

17. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; clover hay, 5 lbs.; corn 
fodder, 3 lbs.; straw, 2 lbs.; wheat bran, 5 lbs.; linseed 
meal, 2 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. 

18. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; timothy and clover hay, 
5 lbs. ; wheat bran or shorts, 7 lbs. 

19. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; English hay, 5 lbs. ; clover 
hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 2 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. ; cot- 
ton-seed meal, 1 lb.; linseed meal, 1 lb. 

20. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; hay, G lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 
lbs. ; corn and cob meal, 2 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 2 lbs. 

21. Corn silage, 50 lbs.; hay, 8 lbs.; wheat bran, 3 
lbs. ; wheat shorts, 2 lbs. ; ground rye and oats, 3 lbs. ; 
barley, 2 lbs. 

22. Corn silage, 35 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 lbs. ; oat 
straw, 2 lbs.; corn meal, 5 lbs.; wheat bran, 5 lbs.; oats, 
5 lbs. 

23. Corn silage, 35 lbs.; hay, 7 lbs.; brewers' 



grains, 20 lbs.; gluten meal, li/^ lbs.; cotton-seed meal, 
IVi lbs.; wheat shorts, 1% lbs.; linseed meal, li/^ lbs. 

24. Corn silage, 24 lbs.; corn meal, 8 lbs.; wheat 
bran, 2 lbs. ; oats, 4 lbs. ; linseed meal, 2 lbs. 

25. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; corn fodder, 10 lbs.; cot- 
ton-seed meal, 21/^ lbs.; N. P. linseed meal. 2 lbs.; wheat 
bran, 4 lbs. 

26. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; timothy hay, 10 lbs.; 
wheat bran, 5 lbs. ; corn meal, 3 lbs ; linseed meal, 2 lbs. 

27. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 
lbs. ; linseed meal, 2 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 1 lb. ; ground 
rye, 1 lb. 

28. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; cotton-seed meal, 3 lbs.; 
corn starch feed, 18 lbs. 

29. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; clover hay, 12 lbs. ; wheat 
middlings, 8 lbs. ; linseed meal, I'lb. 

30. Corn silage, 43 lbs. ; clover and timothy hay, 5 
lbs.; com and cob meal, 8 lbs.; dried brewers' grains, 
11/2 lbs. 

31. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; fodder corn, 8 lbs.; corn 
meal, 3 lbs. ; wheat bran, 3 lbs ; cotton-seed meal, 1 lb. 

32. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; wheat 
shorts, 5 lbs. 

33. Corn silage, 30 lbs. : corn stover, 8 lbs. ; wheat 
bran, 5 lbs.; malt sprouts, 4 lbs.; linseed meal, 1 lb. 

34. Corn silage. 50 lbs. ; clover hay, 9 lbs. 

35. Corn silage, 45 lbs.; mixed hay, 7 lbs.; wheat 
bran, 6 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. 

36. Corn silage, 15 lbs. ; sugar beets, 22 lbs. ; hay, 
10 lbs.; oats, 5^o lbs.; corn meal, 7 lbs. 

37. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; coarse 
linseed meal, 6 lbs. 

38. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; sorghum hay, 13% lbs.; 
corn meal, l%o lbs.; cotton-seed meal, 2%o lbs. ; cotton- 
seed, 2%o lbs.; wheat bran, l^ip lbs. 

39. Corn silage, 35 lbs.; mixed hay, 10 lbs.; wheat 
bran, 2 lbs.; corn meal, 3%olbs.; linseed meal, lib.; 
cotton-seed meal, 8/^^ lbs. 

40. Corn silage, 20 lbs. ; hay, 14 lbs. ; wheat bran, 
3 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. 

41. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; hay, 10 lbs.; corn meal, 2 
lbs.; gluten meal, 2 lbs.; wheat bran, 2 lbs. ■ 

42. Corn silage, 48 lbs. ; corn and cob meal, 2^^ 
lbs. ; ground wheat, 2% lbs. ; oats, 2i/^ lbs. ; barley meal, 
21/2 lbs. 

43. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; hay, 5 lbs. ; straw, 5 lbs. ; 
wheat bran, 4l^ lbs.; oats, 4I/2 lbs. 

44. Corn silage, 15 lbs.; turnips, 45 lbs.; wheat 
chaff, 7 lbs.; oats, 2i^ lbs.; pea meal, 2y2 lbs. 

45. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; hay, 12 lbs. ; ground oats, 
10 lbs. 

46. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; turnips, 30 lbs.; clover 
hay, 8 lbs. ; straw, 1^ lb. ; oats, 2 lbs. ; wheat bran, 2 lbs. 

47. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 lbs. ; straw, 
3 lbs.; pea meal, 5 lbs.; oats, 2 lbs. 

The rations given were fed in the following States: 
Nos. 1-13, Wisconsin; No. 14, Colorado; No. 15, Con- 
necticut; No. 16, Illinois: No. 17, Indiana; No. 18, Iowa; 
Nos. 19, 20, Massachusetts; No. 21, Minnesota; No. 22, 
Nebraska; No. 23, New Hampshire; No. 24, New Jersey; 
Nos. 25-30, New York; No. 31, North Carohna; Nos. 32-34, 
Ohio; Nos. 35-37, Pennsylvania; No. 38, Texas; Nos. 39-41, 
Vermont; No. 42, West Virginia; and Nos. 43-47, Canada. 



388 " THE FEEDING OF SILAGE 

How Much to Feed — The quantities of silage fed should not exceed 40 or, at the out- 
side, 50 pounds per day per head. It is possible that a maximum allowance of only 25 to 30 pounds 
per head daily is to be preferred where the keeping quality of the milk is an important consider- 
ation. The silage may be given in one or two feeds daily, and, in case of cows in milk, always 
after milking, and not before or during the same, as the peculiar silage odor will, in the latter 
case, be apt to reappear in the milk. 

EflPect on Milk Secretiou — Silage exerts a very beneficial influence on the secretion 
of milk. Where winter dairying is practiced, cows will usually drop considerably in milk toward 
spring, if fed on dry feed, causing a loss of milk through the whole remaining portion of the lac- 
tation period. If silage is fed there will be no such marked decrease in the flow of milk before 
turning out to grass, and the cows will be able to keep up well in milk until late in the summer, 
or early in the fall, when they are to be dried up preparatory to calving. Silage has a similar effect 
on the milk secretion as green fodder or pasture, and if made from well-matured corn, so as not to 
contain an excessive amount of acid, is more like these feeds than any other at the disposal of the . 
farmer. 

There is an abundance of evidence at hand showing that ffood'sUage fed in moderate quantities 
will produce an excellent quality of both butter and cheese. According to the testimony of butter 
experts, silage not only in no way injures the flavor of butter, but better-flavored butter is pro- 
duced by judicious silage feeding than can be made from dry feed. 

The combinations in which corn silage will be used in feeding milch cows will depend a good 
deal on local conditions ; it may be said in general that it should be supplemented by a fair pro- 
portion of nitrogenous feeds like clover hay, wheat bran, ground oats, linseed meal, and cotton- 
seed meal. 

SILAGE FOR STEERS 

Silage may be fed with advantage to steers, in quantities up to forty or fifty 
pounds a day. The health of the animals and the quality of the beef produced on 
moderate silage feeding leave nothing to be wished for. 

If the silage is made from immature corn, care must be taken not to feed too large quantities 
at the start and to feed carefully, so as not to produce scouring in the animals. Young stock may 
be fed half as much silage as full-grown ones, with the same restrictions and precautions as given 
for steers. Experience obtained at the Kansas Experiment Station suggests that corn silage is 
not a fit food for breeding bulls, unless fed only as a relish ; fed heavily on silage, bulls lose 
virility and become slow and uncertain breeders. 

SILAGE FOR HORSES 

When fed in moderate quantities, not to exceed twenty pounds a day, silage is a 
good food for horses. 

It should be fed twice a day, a light feed being given at first and gradually increased as the 
animals become accustomed to the food. Some farmers feed it mixed with cut straw, two-thirds 
of straw, and one-third of silage, and feed all the horses will eat of this mixed feed. Some horses 
object to silage at first on account of its peculiar odor, but by sprinkling some oats or bran on top 



SILAGE FOR SHEEP AND SWINE 38-9 

of the silage and feeding only very small amounts to begin with, they soon learn to eat and relish 
it. Some horses take it willingly from the beginning. Horses not working may be fed larger 
quantities than work horses, but in neither case should the silage form more than a portion of the 
coarse feed fed to the horses. Silage-fed horses will look well and come out in the spring in 
better condition than when fed almost any other food. 

What has been said about silage as a food for horses will most likely apply equally well to 
mules, although only very limited experience has thus far been gained with silage for this class of 
farm animals. 

SILAGE FOR SHEEP 

Silage is looked upon with great favor among sheep men ; sheep do well on it, 
and silage-fed ewes drop their lambs in the spring without trouble, the lambs being 
strong and vigorous. 

Silage containing a good deal of corn is not well adapted for breeding stock, as it is too 
fattening ; for fattening stock, on the other hand, much corn in the silage is an advantage. Sheep 
may be fed a couple of pounds of silage a day and not to exceed five or six pounds per head. 
Professor Cook reports as follows in regard to the value of silage for sheep : " I have fed ensilage 
liberally to sheep for three winters and am remarkably pleased with the results. I make ensilage 
half the daily ration, the other half being corn stalks, or timothy hay, with bran or oats. The 
sheep do exceedingly well. Formerly I was much troubled to raise lambs from grade Merino ewes. 
Of late this trouble has almost ceased. Last spring I hardly lost a lamb. While ensilage may not 
be the entire cause of the change, I believe it is the main cause." 

Mr. J. S. Woodward, the well-known New York farmer who has made a specialty of early 
lamb raising, says regarding silage as a feed for lambs : "In order to be successful in raising fine 
lambs, it is imperative that the ewes and lambs both should have plenty of succulent food. Nothing 
can supply the deficiency. For this purpose roots of almost any kind are good. Turnips, ruta- 
bagas, and mangolds are all good. Corn silage is excellent. Could I have my choice I would 
prefer both silage and roots. If I were depending on silage alone for succulent food, I would give 
four pounds per hundred pounds live weight of sheep, all at one feed, at the forenoon feed ; but 
when feeding both silage and roots, I would feed silage in the morning and roots in the afternoon." 

SILAGE FOR SWINE 

The testimony concerning the value of silage as a food for swine is conflicting, 
both favorable and unfavorable reports being at hand. Many farmers have tried 
feeding it to their hogs, but without success. On the other hand, a number of hog 
raisers have had good success with silage, and feed it regularly to their swine. It 
is possible that the differences in the quality of the silage and of the methods of 
feeding practiced explain the diversity of opinions formed. 

According to Professor Cook, Col. F. D. Curtiss, the great American authority on the swine 
industry, states that silage is valuable to add to the winter rations of swine. 
26 



390 THE BUILDING OF A SILO 

Mr. J. W. Pierce of Indiana writes in regard to silage for hogs: "We have fed our sows, 
about twenty-five in number, for four winters, equal parts of ensilage and corn meal put into a 
cooker, and brought up to a steaming state. It has proved to be very beneficial to them. It keeps 
up the flow of milk of the sows that are nursing the young, equal to when they are running on 
clover. We find, too, when the pigs are farrowed, they become more robust, and take to nursing 
much sooner and better.than they did in winters when fed on an exclusively dry diet." 

In feeding silage to hogs, care should be taken to feed only very little, a pound or so, at the 
start, mixing it with corn meal, shorts, or other concentrated feeds. The diet of the hog should 
be largely made up of easily digested grain food ; bulky, coarse feeds like silage can only be fed to 
advantage in small quantities, not to exceed three or four pounds per head, per day. As in the 
case of breeding ewes, silage will give good results when fed with cai'e to brood sows, keeping the 
system in order and producing a good flow of milk. 



THE BUILDING OF A SILO 
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

Several important points have to be observed in building silos. First of all, the 
silo must be air-tight, and the fodder well packed in it, so as to exclude the air as 
far as practicable. 

In the second place, the silo must have smooth, peiyendicular avails, which will 
allow the mass to settle without forming cavities along the walls. In a deep silo 
the fodder will settle several feet during the first few days after filling. Any 
unevenness in the wall will prevent the mass from settling uniformly, and air 
spaces in the mass thus formed will cause the surrounding silage to spoil. 

The walls 7yiust furthei-more he rigid, so as not to spring when the siloed fodder 
settles, on account of the lateral pressure in the silo, as air would thereby be admit- 
ted along the silo walls, causing decay and loss of silage. 

Size — In planning a silo the first point to be decided is how large it shall be made. We will 
suppose that the fai'mer has a herd of twenty-five cows, to which he wishes to feed silage during 
the winter season, e. g., for 180 days. As a rule, it will not be well to feed over forty pounds of 
silage daily per head. If this quantity be fed daily, on an average for a season of 180 days, we 
have for the twenty-five cows 180,000 pounds, or ninety tons. If ninety tons of silage is wanted, 
about one hundred tons of fodder corn must be placed in the silo. 

We may take forty pounds as the average weight of one cubic foot of corn silage. One ton of 
silage will accordingly take up fifty cubic feet ; and 100 tons, 5,000 cubic feet. If a rectangular 
one-hundred-ton silo is to be built, say 12x14 feet, it must then have a height of 30 feet. If a 
square silo is wanted it might be given dimensions 12 x 12 x 35 feet, or 13 x 13 x 30 feet. (See also 
under "Handy Kules.") 



GENEKAL CONSIDEkATIONS 391 

Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical, Silos for Well-matured Corn Silage, in Tons 



Depth op Silo, 










Inside Diameter of Silo, 


Feet 










Feet 


10 


12 


14 


15 


16 


18 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


20 

21 


26 

28 
80 
32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
45 
47 
49 
51 


38 
40 
43 
46 
49 
53 
55 
58 
61 
64 
68 
70 
73 


51 
55 

59 
62 
66 
70 
74 
78 
83 
88 
93 
96 
101 


59 
63 
67 
72 
76 
81 
85 
90 
95 
100 
105 
110 
115 


67 
72 

77 

82 

87 

90 

97 

103 

108 

114 

119 

125 

131 


85 
91 
97 
103 
110 
116 
123 
130 
137 
144 
151 
158 
166 


105 
112 
l-.'O 
128 
135 
143 
152 
160 
169 
178 
187 
195 
205 


115 
12;^ 
132 
141 
149 
158 
168 
177 
186 
196 
206 
215 
226 


127 
135 
145 
154 
164 
173 
184 
194 
204 
215 
226 
236 
248 


138 
148 
158 
169 
179 
190 
201 
212 
223 
235 
247 
258 
271 


151 
161 
172 
184 
195 
206 
219 
231 
243 
256 
269 
282 
295 


163 
175 
187 
199 
212 
224 
2.37 
251 
264 
278 
292 
305 
320 


177 

189 


22 


202 


23 . 


216 


24 


229 


25 


9.49. 


86 . 


257 


27 


279 


28 - 


281 


29 - 


305 


30 


310 


31 


a35 


32.. 


340 



The silo should always be emptied from the top in horizontal layers, and the surface kept 
level, so as to expose as little of the silage as possible to the air. It should be fed out rapidly 
enough to avoid spoiling of the silage ; in ordinary northern winter weather a layer of a couple of 
inches should be fed off daily. Professor King estimates that there should be a feeding surface in 
the silo of about five square feet per cow in the herd ; a herd of thirty cows will then require 150 
square feet of feeding surface, or the inside diameter of the silo should be 14 feet ; for a hei-d of 
forty cows a silo with a diameter of 16 feet will be required ; for fifty cows, a diameter of 18 feet ; 
for one hundred cows, a diameter of 25i feet, etc. These considerations are at the foundation of 
the following table : 

Size of Silo Needed — {Harder) 



Number of 
Cows. 


Estimated 
Consump- 
tion of 
Silage. 
Tons. 


Size of Silo 
Needed 

Diam. Height. 


Average 
Acres of 

Corn 
Needed. 


Number of 
Cows. 


Estimated 
Consump- 
tion of 
Silage. 
Tons. 


Size of Silo 
Needed 

Diam. Height. 


Average 
Acres of 

Corn 
Needed. 


6 


20 
30 

45 
74 

90 


9 X 20 1 
10 X 16 f 

10 X 22 1 

11 X 20 f 

10 X 291 

11 X 25 1 

12 X 22 f 

13 X 20 J 

11 X 371 

12 X 32 1 

13 X 29 ^ 

15 X 24 1 

16 X 22J 

12 X 381 

13 X 33 

14 X 30 
15x27 
16 X 25 


1 to 2 

2 to 3 

3 to 4 

5 to 6 

6 to 7 


30 


108 

126 

144 

162 
180 


la X 381 
14!^ 34 

15 X 30 

16 X 28 

17 X 25J 

15 X 35 ) 

16 X 31 V 

17 X 29 i 

16 X 35) 

17 X 31 V 

18 X 29 ) 

18 X 32 t 

19 X 29 ) 

17 X 38 1 

18 X 34 i" 






8 to 9 


13 


35 






9 to 10 


21 - 




10 to 11 

11 to 12 




45 


25 - 


50 






12 to 13 









392 



THE BUILDING OF A SILO 



Form of Silos — One of the essentials in silo building is that there shall be a minimum of 
surface and wall exposure of the silage, as both the cost and the danger from losses through spoil- 
ing are thereby reduced. The round silos are superior to all other forms in regard to this point, 
the cylindrical form being also the most economical to build of the three types, because lighter 
material and less of it may be used in their construction. 

Silage of all kinds will usually begin to spoil after a few days, if left exposed to the air ; hence 
the necessity of considering the extent of surface exposure of silage in the silo while it is being 
fed out. ■ In a deep silo there is less silage exposed in the surface layer in proportion to the con- 
tents than in shallow silos. 

Location — The feeding of the silage is an every-day job during the whole winter and 
spring, and twice a-day at that. The silo should be as handy to get at from the barn as possible. 
If the ground is dry outside the barn, the best plan is to build the silo there, in connection with 
the barn, going 4 to 6 feet below the surface, and providing for doors opening directly into the 
barn. The bottom of the silo should be on or below the level where the cattle stand, and, if prac- 
ticable, the silage should be moved out and placed before the cows at a single handling. While it 
is important to have the silo near at hand, it should be so located, in case the silage is used for 
milk production, that silage odors do not penetrate the whole stable, at milking or at other times. 

Bottom of Silo — The bottom of the silo may 
be clay, or, preferably, a layer of small stones covered 
with cement. In some silos considerable damage has 
been done by rats burrowing their way into the silo 
ffom below, and destroying a great deal of silage, both 
directly and indirectly, by admitting air into the silo. 
The silo may be built 4 to 6 feet down into the ground, 
if this IS dry. Stave silos are built entirely above ground. 
Foundation and Wall — The silo should rest 
on a substantial stone foundation, to prevent the bot- 
tom of the silo from rotting and to guard against spread- 
ing of the silo wall. The foundation wall should be 18 
to 2l inches thick. Professor Cook recommends mak- 
ing the bottom of the silo one foot below the ground, so 
that the stone wall on which it rests may be sustained by 
the earth on the outside, as shown in Fig. 167. 

In building rectangular silos sills made by two 2 x 10 
planks (P) rest on the inside ten inches of the foundation 
wall ; one of these projects at each corner. The stud- 
dings (S), which are 2x10 planks, and as long as the 
silo is high, or two lengths toe-nailed together, are placed 
12 to 16 inches apart, large silos requiring the smaller 
. _..--.v-. - ... - distance. 

^~ *' „ As there is a considerable lateral pressure in the silo 

Fig. 167. Foundation of silo. Bottom , „ .,/.,,, ^^-y ■> -^ ■ ■ ^ ,. ^ 

of silo one foot below ground. (Cooli.) before the fodder has settled, it is very important to 




STONE OR BEICK SILOS 393 

make the walls rigid and to place the studding sufficiently close together to prevent spreading of 
the wall. Mr. James M. Turner states that it was found necessary to use 2x12 studding, 22, 24, 
or 26 feet in length for the outside wall, as well as for the cross-partitions in his first silo. In 
addition to this, three courses of bridging in each side-wall were inserted. When the silage has 
settled there is no lateral pressure in the silo. While silos provided with partitions must be 
filled simultaneously on both sides of the partition to avoid bulging or even breaking of the 
partition, the silage in one compartment can be completely removed before that in the other is 
uncovered, without causing the partition to spring. 

To insure ventilation in rectangular wooden silos, the sills may be two inches narrower than 
the studding, so as to leave air spaces between the sills and the lining ; in the same way the plate 
is made narrower than the studding to provide for an escape at the top. The same end may be 
reached by boring a series of holes at the bottom of the outside wall between every two studs, 
leaving an open space of about two inches on the inside at the top of the plate. Wire nettings 
should be nailed over ventilation openings to keep outs rats and mice. 

Koof — Where the silo is built in the bay of a barn, there will be no need of making any sep- 
arate roof, which otherwise generally will be the case. The roof may be either board or shingle, 
and should be provided with a cupola, so as to allow free ventilation in the silo. In extreme cold 
weather this should be shut, to prevent freezing of the silage. 

Material — Silos are at the present built almost exclusively of wood, stone, or concrete, or 
partly of one, partly of another of these materials. 

STONE OR BRICK SILOS 

These silos are usually more expensive than wooden ones, but, in return, they 
will last longer when carefully built. 

Stone silos are easily built, being just like a cellar wall, if possible without any opening except 
the door, and provided with a roof like any other silo. The walls should be at least 16 inches 
thick, and should be jacketed with wood on the outside, to prevent injury from frost, and to form 
dead-air spaces, which will insure perfect preservation of the silage clear up to the silo wall. This 
applies still more to brick than to stone walls. With the outside covering nailed to studdiugs, 
2x4, no trouble will, however, be experienced in either case. Ventilation of the silo frame 
must be provided for as in the case of wooden silos. 

The following mode of constructing stone silos has proved very convenient, and will make 
good, substantial silos : The silo is built 5 to 6 feet into the ground, if it can safely be done ; 
the foundation wall is made two feet thick, and at the level of the ground a 4 x 6 sill is laid on the 
outer edge of the wall and bedded in mortar ; a wooden frame is then erected of 2x6 studding, 
sheeted on the inside with common flooring, and on the outside with ship lap boarding, with or 
without building paper on the studding. The stone wall is then continued on the inside of this 
wooden frame up to the plate, the corners well rounded off, and the whole inside cemented. 

The stone or brick wall must be made smooth by means of a heavy coat of a first-class cement. 
Since the acid juices of silage are apt to gradually soften the cement, it may be found necessary to 
protect the coating by a whitewash with pure cement every other year before the silo is filled. If 
this precaution is taken, the silo will last for generations ; some of the earliest stone silos built in 



394 



THE BUILDINCt OF A SILO 



this country have now been filled every season for over twenty years without deteriorating per- 
ceptibly. 

Like the wooden silos, stone silos may be rectangular, square, or circular ; if built according 
to either of the first two forms, the corners should be rounded off so as to assist the settling 
of the siloed mass, and avoid loss through insufficient packing of the mass in the corners. 

The construction of 
a round, all-stone silo 
given by Professor 
King is shown in Fig. 
168. A .shows a section 
of the silo, with conical 
roof, and the arrange- 
ment of filling and 
feeding doors ; B and 
C are ground plans of 
circular and rectangu- 
lar stone silos ; .D, E, 
F show construction of 
feeding doors. The 
construction of the 
door jambs, to make 
them air-tight, will be 
seen in the illustration. 
The doors are made 
from two layers of 4- 
inch matched flooring, 

with a layer of 2-ply saturated acid and alkali-proof paper, and are held in place with large screws 
or lag bolts, as shown in E and F. The face of the jambs should be lined with 2-ply P. and B. 
"Ruberoid" paper or its equal ; this will act as a gasket to make the door perfectly air-tight. 




Fig. 168. Construction of circular, all-stone silo. (King.) 



GROUT SILOS 

Where stone is scarce, and lumber high, the best silo is made of gront. Clrout 
silos may be made according to the following directions : 

Having excavated for the silo, dig a trench all around the bottom, and fill it with cobble- 
stone, and from one corner lead a drain, if possible, so as to carry off all water. The trench under 
the proposed walls of the silo being filled with cobblestones, place standards of scantling long 
enough to extend 13 inches higher than the top of the wall when it is finished. Place these stan- 
dards on each side of the proposed wall, and if you desire the walls to be 20 inches thick, place 
the standards 23 inches apart, a pair of standards being placed every 5 or 6 feet around the entire 
foundation ; be particular to have the standards exactly plumb, and in line ; fasten the bottoms of 
standards firmly in the ground, or by nailing a strip of wood across at the bottom of the stan- 



GEOUT SILOS, STAVE SILOS 



395 



dards, and a little below where the floor of the silo will be ; fasten the tops of the standards by a 
heavy cross-piece securely nailed, and fasten the pairs of standards in their plumb portions by 
shores reaching the bank outside. Planks li inches thick and 14 inches wide are now placed 
edgewise inside the standards, 20 inches apart, thus forming a box, 14 inches deep, and running 
all along and around the entire foundation of the proposed wall. Fill this box with alternate 
layers of cobblestone or any 
rough stone, etc., and mortar 
or concrete . First a layer of 
mortar, and then a layer of 
stones, not allowing the stones 
to come quite out to the box- 
ing plank, but having con- 
crete over the edges : the con- 
crete must be tamped down 
solid. 

The concrete is prepared 
as follows : One part of good 
cement is mixed thoroughly 
with four parts of dry sand, 
and then with six parts of 
clear gravel ; make into a thin 
mortar, sprinkling vdth water 
over the same by means of a 
sprinkler, and use at once. 
Put an inch or two of this 
mortar into the box, and then bed in cobblestones ; fill in with mortar, again covering the 
stones, and again put in a layer of stone. When the box is filled, and the mortar "set" so that 
the wall is firm, raise the box one foot, leaving two inches lap of plank on wall below, and go 
around again, raising the wall one foot each day, or every second day, according to the amount of 
labor on hand. If no gravel is obtainable, use five barrels of sand to one of cement, and bed in 
all the cobblestones possible. Stones with rough edges are better than smooth ones, as they bind 
the wall more thoroughly, but any flat stones found about the fields will do as well. A layer of 
loose cobblestones should be placed against the outside wall before the earth is brought against it, 
so as to have an air space, and a free passage for water. 

As in case of the stone silos, the inside walls of grout silos must be made perfectly smooth, 
and preserved from softening by means of occasional whitewashings with pure cement ; tkey must 
also be protected from frost by an outside wooden lining nailed on the 2x4 studding. 

STAVE SILOS 

The stave silo is the simplest type of the various separate silo buildings. Stave 
silos are, generally speaking, similar to large railroad or fermentation tanks, and to 
make satisfactory silos should be built at all events as well as a No. 1 water tank. 




Fig. 169. Stave silo, 12 feet diameter, 24 feet high; capacity, 50 tons. (Elias.1 



396 



THE BUILDING OF A SILO 




Fig. 170. Base of stave silo. (Harder.) 



The stave silos sent out by manufacturing 
firms wilP generally be more expensive than 
such as a farmer can build himself, because 
they are built better. The writer believes 
that it does not pay to build a poor silo ex- 
cept to bridge over an emergency, yet if a 
farmer can not afford to build a good silo, he 
is not necessarily barred from the advantage 
of having silage for his stock, since a tem- 
porary silo may be built at a very small cash 
outlay. 

We can therefore consistently, in most 
cases, recommend that persons intending to 
build stave silos patronize the manufacturers 

who have made silo construction a special business ; their advertisements will be found in any of 
the standard dairy or agricultural papers. These firms furnish all necessary silo fittings, with com- 
plete directions for setting up the silos, and, if desired, also skilled help to superintend their build- 
ing. Perhaps a large majority of the farmers of the country can not patronize manufacturers of 
stave silos because the expense of shipping the lumber and fixtures would be prohibitory. For 
the convenience of such persons and others who may prefer to build their own stave silos, direc- 
tions for their construction are given in the following. The specifications for a 100-ton stave silo, 
printed below, were furnished at the request of the author by Claude & Starck, architects, 
Madison, Wis. : 

Specifications for a 100-ton Stave Silo 

Masonry — Excavate the entire area to be occupied by the silo to a depth of 
6 inches ; excavate for foundation wall to a depth (A 16 inches ; in this trench build 
wall 18 inches wide and 20 inches high, of field stone laid in rich lime mortar. Level 
oflf top and plaster inside, outside, and on top with cement mortar, one part cement 
to one part sand. Fill inside area with 4 inches of good gravel, thoroughly tamped 
down ; after the woodwork is in place, coat this with 1 inch of cement mortar, one 
part cement to one part clean sand. Cement shall be smoothly finished, dished well 
to the center and brought up at least 2 inches all 
i aroimd inside and outside walls. 

Carpentry — All staves shall be 26 feet long in 
two pieces, breaking joints, and made from clear, 
straight-grained cypress 2x6 inches, beveled on edges 
to an outside radius of 8 feet, mill-sized to the exact 
dimensions, and dressed on all sides. There shall be 
three doors in the fifth, eighth, and tenth spaces 
between hoops, made by cutting out from staves 28 
inches long cut to a 45-degree bevel sloping to the 
inside. (See Fig. 174.) The staves shall then be fas- 
tened together with two 2x4-inch battens cut on inside 
to an 8 -foot radius and bolted to each stave with two 
J4-inch diameter carriage bolts, with round head sunk 
on inside and nut on outside. The staves between 
the doors shall be fastened together, top and bottom, 




CEMENT COVE 



"■ "•^*'*"' EARTH 

SECTION 

SCALE /4- IN TO FOOT. 



Fig. 171. Foundation of stave silo. (Harder.) 



STAVE SILOS 



397 



c- 






. 


. 


- 














A 


fj 






c- 










€ 


e 


jt_ 


f 


«5. 














W 


















: 






















/5 






























■^\> 



Fig. 1"2. Cross-section of stave silo. The 
dotted lines are to show how scaffold- 
ing may be put up. (Clinton.) 



% 

with %-inch diameter hardwood dowel pins, and abutting ends of ,1^, 

staves shall be squared and toe-nailed together. ^ -,_ j' 

Bottom Plates — Bottom plates shall be made of 2 x 4-inch 
pieces about 2 feet long, cut to a curve of 7 feet 10 inches radius out- 
side. They shall be bedded in cement mortar and the staves shall 
then be set on the foundation and well spiked to these plates. 

Hoops — Hoops shall be made from two pieces of 5^-inch diam- 
eter round iron with upset ends, threaded 8 inches, with nut and 
washer at each end ; as a support for the hoops a piece of 4 x 6-inch Ya 
shall be substituted for a stave on opposite sides and holes bored in 

it and the ends of hoops passed through these holes 

and tightened against the sides of the 4x6-iiich. 

The hoops shall be twelve in number, starting at the 

bottom 6 inches apart and increasing in distance 6 

inches between each hoop, until a space of 3 feet 

inches is reached ; from this point up this distance 

shall be preserved as near as possible to the top. 

Roof --Roof shall be made to a half-pitch of 6 

inches clear siding, lapping joint, nailed to 2 x 4-inch 

rafters, 2-foot centers, 1-foot by 4-inch ridge, and 

2x4- inch plates. These plates to be supported on 

two 4 X 4-inch pieces resting on top of hoops. (See Fig. 178.) Three 1 x 4-inch collar beams shall 

be spiked to end and middle rafters to tie side of roof together. 

Painting — The entire outside of the silo, including roof, shall be painted two coats of good 

mineral paint ; the entire inside surface of staves and doors shall be thoroughly coated with hot 

coal tar. 

Note — Before filling silo, tarred paper should be tacked tightly over doors and the entire 

inside of silo examined and all cracks tightly calked. 

Notes on Construction — The method of making the foundation of a 
stave silo recommended by a New Yorlc manufacturer is shown in Figs. 170 and 171. 
A good way of sta/ting the building of a stave silo is illustrated in Figs. 173 
and 175. Some manufacturers of stave silos furnish such silo fronts, all joined 
together and ready to set in place, at a small extra charge, with battens D, D, bolted 
on, and dowel-pinned together ; after the front is up and braced, so that it stands 
perfectly perpendicular every way, the silo is built by adding a stave at a time to 
this front, each stave being firmly fastened 
by cleats on the inside, one near the top, one 
in the middle, and one near the bottom. 
(Fig. 176.) 

Before tilling the silo the hoops should 
be drawn somewhat tight, but not perfectly 
so, so as to allow for the swelling of the 

staves from the moisture which they will take up from 

the corn. The hoops should be watched closely for some 

days after the silo has been filled, and if the strain becomes 

very intense the nuts should be slightly loosened so that 



Fig. 173. Six- 
stave ^ i lo 
front, ready to 
be put up : 
A, A, A, doors; 
C, C, C, dowel 
pins ; D, D, D, 
door battens 
(Cap.Lbr.Co.) 




the hoops will not be broken or the thread stripped. 



Fig. 174. Appearance of door in stave 
silo after being sawed out, and side 
view of door in place. (Clinton.) 



398 



THE BUILDING OF A SILO 




Fig. 175. 

tiOES. 



Setting up the stave silo in see- 
(Harder.) 



In order to prevent the collapse of the silo during 
the summer when it is empty and the staves have be- 
come thoroughly dried out, the hoops should be fas- 
tened with numerous staples ; these will prevent the 
hoops from sagging or dropping down, and will also 
hold the staves in place. 

SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR 
WOODEN SILOS 

Bays of the barn may be easily changed into 
silos according to the following directions given 
by Professor Whitcher : 

"Remove floors, and if there is a barn cellar, place 
sills on the bottom of this and set 2x8 scantling verti- 
cally, bringing up the inside edges even with the sills of 
the barn. The bottom may or may not be cemented, 
according as the ground is wet or dry. If to be 
cemented, three casks of cement and an equal amount 
of sharp sand or gravel will cover a bottom 16x 16 and 
turn up on the sides two feet, which will give a tight 
silo. Common spruce or hemlock boards, square-edged 
and planed on one side, are best for boarding the inside 
of the silo ; these are to be put on in two courses. 



breaking joints, and, if thoroughly nailed, will give a 
tight silo. No tonguing or matching is needed. Tarred 
paper may be put between the boarding, if desired, but 
I doubt if it is of great utility. 

"At some point most easily accessible, an opening 
extending nearly the height of the silo must be made, to 
put in the corn and take out the silage. The courses 
of boards should be cut shorter than the opening, to 
allow loose boards to be set in, lapping on the door- 
studding and making an air-tight joint. For all this 
work medium lumber is good enough, and a very lim- 
ited amount of mechanical skill and a few tools, which 
all farms should have, will enable most farmers to build 
their own silo. 

"A few iron rods, one-half inch in diameter, may be 
necessary to prevent spreading by side pressure, but 
this will depend upon the strength of the original frame 
of the barn. Narrow boards, from 5 to 8 inches wide. 




Fig. 176. Use of barrel staves in setting up 
a stave silo ; they should be removed 
before the silo is^led. 



CROPS FOR THE SILO 



399 




Fig. 177. Door of stave silo. (Elias.) 



are better than wide ones, as they are not likely to 
swell and split. Eight-penny nails for the first board- 
ing and twelve-penny nails for the second course will 
hold the boards in place. 

' 'A silo constructed as above outlined will cost from 
50 cents to $1 for each ton of its capacity, according as 
all materials, including lumber and stone, are charged, 
or only labor and nails, rods, and cement." 

CROPS FOR THE SILO 

CORN SILAGE 

The varieties of corn to be planted for the 
silo must differ according to local conditions, 
as of climate and soil. 

Ideal Varieties— The ideal silage corn, accord- 
ing to Shelton, is a variety having a tall, slender, short- 
jointed stalk, well eared, and bearing an abundance of foliage. The leaves and ears should make 
up a large percentage of the total weight, and the yield per acre should be heavy. The lower 
leaves should keep green until the crop is ready to harvest,, and it is desirable to have the plant 
stool well and throw out tall, grain-bearing suckers. A silage variety should mature late, the 

later the better, so long as it only matures, as a long-grow- 
ing, late-maturing sort will furnish much more feed from 
a given area than one that ripens early. 

Thickness of Planting — In planting corn for 
the silo we want the largest quantities of food materials 
that the land is capable of producing. This, evidently, 
can be obtained by a medium thickness of planting. If 
too thin or too thick planting be practiced, the total yields 
of food materials obtained will be decreased — in the for- 
mer case, because of the small stand of plants ; in the 
latter, because of insufficiency of light, moisture, and other 
conditions necessary to bring the plants forward to full 
growth. 

Corn should be planted in hills or drills, and not 
broadcast. The objection to sowing corn broadcast is that 
the land can not be kept free from weeds in this case, 
except by hand labor ; that more seed is required, and that 
plants will shade one another, and therefore not reach full 

development, from lack of sufficient sunshine and mois- 
FiG. 178. A cheap roof of stave silo. . . i,. tu • u -n u ^i i- • • i. j 

(Clinton.) ture. As a result, the yield will be greatly oimmished. 




400 CEOPS FOE THE SILO 

When to Harvest — The largest amount of food materials in the corn crop is not 
obtained until the corn is well ripened. When a corn plant has reached its total growth in 
height, it has attained only one- third to one-half the weight of dry matter it will gain if left to 
grow to maturity ; and although there is a slight decrease in the digestibility of the dry matter 
and a marked decrease in that of the crude protein and crude fiber with the greater maturity of 
the fodder, we nevertheless find that the general practice of cutting corn for the silo at the time 
when the fruit has reached the roasting-ear stage, is good science, and in accord with our best 
knowledge on the subject. 

CLOVER AND ALFALFA SILAGE 

When properly made, clover silage is an ideal feed, for nearly all kinds of stock. 
Aside from its higher protein content it has an advantage over corn silage in point 
of lower cost of production. The late A. F. Noyes of Dodge County, Wisconsin, 
who siloed 1,200 tons of clover during his last eight years, estimated the cost of 
one ton of clover silage at 70 cents to II, against $1 to 11.25 per ton of corn silage. 

When to Cut — The common practice of farmers is to cut clover for the silo when in full 
bloom, or when the first single heads are beginning to wilt, that is, when right for haymaking, 
and we notice that the teachings of the investigations made are in conformity with this practice. 

What has been said in regard to the siloing of clover refers to alfalfa as well. Alfalfa silage 
compares favorably with clover silage, both in chemical composition and in feeding value. It is 
richer in flesh-forming substances (protein) than clover silage, or any other kind of silage, and 
makes a most valuable feed for farm animals, especially young stock and dairy cows. 

OTHER SILAGE CROPS 

Sorghviiii is sometimes siloed in the Western and Middle States. 

Sorghum for silage is sown in drills, three and one-half inches apart, with a stalk every six 
to ten inches in the row, and is cut when the kernels are in the dough stage, or before. Accord- 
ing to Shelton, the medium-growing saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums are all excellent 
silage materials. The sorghums are less liable to damage by insects than corn, and they remain 
green far into the fall, so that the work of filling the silo may be carried on long after the corn is 
ripe and the stalks all dried up. The yield per acre of green sorghum will often reach twenty tons, 
or one-half as much again as a good crop of corn. 

Cow-pea Silage is greatly relished by farm animals after they once become 
accustomed to its peculiar flavor ; farmers who have had considerable practical 
experience in feeding this silage are of the opinion that cow-pea silage has no equal 
as a food for cows and sheep. It is also a good hog food, and for all these animals 
is considered greatly superior to pea-vine hay. 

Soja Beans {soy beans) are another valuable silage crop. The vigorous late 
varieties are well adapted for silage. The crop is frequently siloed with corn (two 



fillinct the silo 401 

parts of the latter to cue of the former), and like other legumes it improves the 
silage by tending to counteract the acid reaction of corn silage. 

Mixed Silage — Professor Robertson of Canada has recommended the 
Rohertson Ensilage Mixture for the silo. 

The mixture is made up of cut Indian corn, sunflower seed heads, and horse beans in the pro- 
portion of one acre corn, one-half acre horse beans, and one-quarter acre sunflowers. The princi- 
ple back of this practice is to furnish a feed richer in flesh-forming substances (protein) than corn, 
and thus avoid the purchase of large quantities of expensive protein foods, like bran, oil meal, etc. 
Feeding experiments conducted with the Robertson Silage Mixture for cows at several of our 
experiment stations have given very satisfactory results, and have shown that this silage mixture 
can be partly substituted for the grain ration of milch cows, without causing loss of flesh or less- 
ening the production of milk or fat. Fifteen pounds of this silage may be considered equivalent 
to three to four pounds of grain feeds. 

Beet Pulp Silage — In districts near sugar beet factories, where sugar 
beet pulp can be obtained in large quantities and at a trifling cost, stock feeders 
and dairymen have a most valuable aid in preserving the pulp in the silo. As the 
pulp is taken from the factory it contains about 90 per cent of water. 

The pulp packs well in the silo, being heavy, finely divided and homogeneous, and a more 
shallow silo can therefore be safely used in making pulp silage than is required in siloing corn, 
and especially clover and other crops of similar character. If pulp is siloed with other fodder 
crops, it is preferably placed uppermost, for the reason stated. Beet tops and pulp may also be 
siloed in alternate layers in pits three to four feet deep, and covered with boards and a layer of 
dirt. 

Beet pulp silage is relatively rich in protein and low in ash and carbohydrates (nutritive ratio 
1:5.7). Its feeding value is equal to about half that of corn silage. 

FILLING THE SILO 

If the corn is to be cut before being filled into the silo, it is unloaded on the 
table of the fodder-cutter and run through the cutter, after which the carrier 
elevates it to the silo window and delivers it into the silo. 

Fine vs. Coarse-ciit Silage — The length of cutting practiced differs somewhat with 
different farmers, and according to variety of corn to be siloed. The general practice is to cut 
the corn in one-half to one-inch lengths, a few cut in two-inch lengths. The corn will pack 
better in the silo the finer it is cut, and cattle will eat the larger varieties cleaner if cut into inch 
lengths or less. On the other hand, it is possible that fine cuttings implies larger losses through 
fermentations in the silo ; fine-cut silage may, furthermore, not keep as long as silage cut longer 
after having been taken out of the silo. There is, however, not sufficient experimental evidence 
at hand to establish either of these points ; the majority of farmers filling silos, at any rate, prac- 
tice cutting corn fine for the silo. 



402 FILLING THE SILO 

Spreading and Packing — The carrier should deliver the corn as nearly in the middle 
of the silo as possible ; by means of a chute attached to the carrier, the cut corn may be delivered 
to any part of the silo desired ; and the labor of distributing and leveling the corn thus facilitated. 
If the corn is siloed "ears and all," it is necessary to keep a man or a boy in the silo while it is 
being filled, to level the surface and tramp down the sides and corners ; if left to itself, the 
heavier pieces of ears will be thrown farthest away and the light leaves and tops will all come 
nearest the discharge ; as a result, the corn will not settle evenly, and the feeding value of 
different layers of silage will differ greatly. To assist in the distribution of the corn it is recom- 
mended that a pyramidal box be hung in front and below the top of the carrier ; this may be 
made about three feet square at the base and tapering to a point, at which a rope is attached for 
hanging to rafters. The descending mass of cut corn will strike the top of the box and be 
divided so as to distribute to all parts of the silo. Another simple device is to place a board 
vertically, or nearly so, in front of the top of the carrier, against which the cut corn will strike; 
or, to tie a bag, open at the bottom, over the top of the carrier. 

Rapid vs. Slow Filling — Generally speaking, rapid filling has the advantage in point 
of economy, both of labor and of food materials. The fermentations are left to proceed farther 
in case of slow filling than when the silo is filled rapidly, being greatly aided by the oxygen 
of the air, which then has better access to the separate layers ; this is plainly shown by the higher 
temperature reached in slowly filled silos. The rise in the temperature is due to the activity of 
bacteria, and a high temperature, therefore, means greater losses of food constituents. More silage 
can be obtained in the same silo by slow than by rapid filling, as the fodder will settle more in the 
former case than when the silo is filled at once, and refilled after a few days. 

As there may be some farmers who still hold slow filling to be preferable, we give the directions 
for filling the silo in this way : When enough corn has been added to fill three to six feet of the 
silo, the filling is discontinued and the mass allowed to heat up to 120° to 140° Fahrenheit. This 
may take a day or two; the filling is then continued, and another layer of three feet or more filled in, 
which is left to heat as before. This method of intermittent filling is continued until the silo is full. 

Carbon Dioxide' Poisoning — As soon as the corn in the silo begins to heat, carbon 
dioxide is evolved, and if the silo is shut up tight, the gas will gradually accumulate directly above 
the fodder, since it is heavier than air and does not mix with it under the conditions given. If a 
man or an animal goes down into this atmosphere, there is great danger of asphyxiation, as is the 
case under similar conditions in a deep cistern or well. Poisoning cases from this cause have 
occurred in filling silos where the filling has been interrupted for one or more days, the carbonic 
acid generated in the meantime having replaced the layer of air immediately above the corn, and 
men who have gone into the silo to tramp down the cut corn have been asphyxiated. If the 
doors above the siloed mass are left open when the filling is stopped, or at least the first door above 
the surface of the corn, and the silo thus ventilated, the gas will slowly diffuse into the air. 
Carbon dioxide being without odor or color, to all appearances like ordinary air, it 6an not be 
directly observed, but may be readily detected by means of a lighted lantern or candle. If the 
light goes out when lowered into the silo, there is an accumulation of this gas in it, and a person 
should open feed doors and fan the air in the silo before going down into it. 

1 Popularly called "carbonic acid gas." 



BOOKS ON THE SILO 403 

After the silage is made and the temperature in the silo has gone down considerably, there is 
no further evolution of carbon dioxide and therefore no danger in entering the silo, even if this 
has been shut up tight. 

Covering- the Siloed Fodder — Straw, marsh hay, sawdust, finely cut corn stalks or 
green husked fodder, cotton-seed hulls, etc., are used in various localities to cover the siloed fod- 
der, but none of the materials recommended for the purpose can perfectly preserve the uppermost 
layer of silage, as far as my experience goes, some six to eight inches of the top layer usually being 
spoiled. The wet or green materials are better for cover than dry substances, since they prevent 
evaporation of water from the top layer. 

The practice of applying water to the fodder in the silo has been followed in a large number 
of cases. The surface is tramped thoroughly and a considerable amount of water added. By this 
method a sticky, almost impervious layer of rotten silage, a couple of inches thick, will form on 
the top, which will prevent evaporation of water from the corn below, and will preserve all but a 
few inches of the top. 

None of the different methods foregoing will preserve all of the silage intact, and the author 
knows of only one way in which this can be accomplished, viz. : by beginning to feed the silage 
within a few days after the silo has been filled. This method is now practiced by many farmers, 
especially dairymen, who in this manner supplement scant fall pastures. 




^^ 



PUBLICATIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND 
MANAGEMENT OF SILOS 

Note — In addition to the few publications on the sub^ject of Silos and Silage here listed, many of the State 
agricultural experiment statlon.s have issued bulletins which are sent free to residents of the respective States. 
For convenience in ordering these and other bulletins, a directory of the experiment stations is given in this con- 
nection. Directors should be addressed in their official capacity, and not personally, to obviate the possibility of 
delay in the supplying of bulletins in their absence from their stations. 

A Book ON Silage. By F. W. Woll. Band, McNally <& Co., Chicago $0.75 

Physics OF Agricultuee. By Franklin H. King. F. H. King, Madison, Wis. . . . 2.00 

Thirty -four pages of this work are given over to a treatment of mechanical considerations 
in silo-building. 

SiLOs, Ensilage, and Silage. By Manley Miles. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 50 

Silos and Silage. By C. S. Plumb. Farmers' Bulletin 82. United States Department 

of Agriculture 



404 



AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS 



DIRECTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS 
IN THE UNITED STATES 



Director 


Post-office 
Address 


State 


Director 


Post-office 
Address 


State 


P. H. Mell . 


Auburn i 

Uniontown 2 

Tuskegees 

Tucson 

Fayetteville 

Berkeley 


Alabama 

Alabama 

Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Louisiana 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 


J. T. Otinson .... 

S. Fortier 

E. A. Burnett.... 

J. E. Stubbs 

W. D. Gibbs 

E. B. Voorhees .. 
E. B. Voorhees .. 
Luther Foster _ . . 
W. H.Jordan.... 
L P. Roberts 

B. W. Kilgore.... 
J. H. Worst 

C. E. Thorne 

John Fields 

J. Withycombe.. 

H. P. Armsby 

H.J. Wheeler ... 
H. S. Hartzog . . . 

J. W. Heston 

A. M. Soule 

J. H. Connell.... 
J. A. Widtsoe.... 

J. L. Hills 

J. M. McBryde... 

E. A. Bryan 

J. H. Stewart... 

W. A. Henry 

E. E. Smiley 


Mountain Grove 9 

Bozeman 

Lincoln 




J. M. Richeson 

G. W. Carver 


Montana 
Nebraska 


R. H. Forbes 


Reno 


Nevada 


R. L. Bennett 


Durham 


New Hampshire 
New Jersey 
New Jersey 
New Mexico 


E. W. Hilgard-... 


New Brunswickio 
NewBrunswickii 

Mesilla Park 

Genevai2 

Ithaca 13 


L. G. Carpenter. . . 

E. H. Jenkins 

W. O. Atwater 


Fort Collins 

New Haven * 

Storrss 


A. T. Neale 


Newark 


New York 


T. H. Taliaferro . . 
E. J. Redding 


Lake City 

Experiment 

Moscow 


Raleigh 

Fargo 


North Carolina 
North Dakota 


J. A. McLean 




Ohio 


E. Davenport 

C.S. Plumb 


Urbana.. 

Lafayette 


Stillwater 

Corvallis 


Oklahoma 
Oregon 


C. F. Curtiss. 


State College.... 

Kingston 

Clemson College. 

Brookings 

Knoxville 

College Station . . 
Logan 


Pennsylvania 
Rhode Island 
South Carolina 
South Dakota 
Tennessee 
Texas 
Utah 


J. T.Willard 

M. A. Scovell 

W.C. Stubbs 

W.C. Stubbs 

W.C. Stubbs 

CLas. D. Woods. . . 


Manhattan 

Lexington 

Baton Rouges... 
New Orleans 7 . . . 

Calhoun » 

Orono 


H. J Patterson . . . 

H. H. Goodell 

C. D. Smith 


College Park 

Amherst 

Agricult. College. 
St. Anthony Park 
Agricult. College- 
Columbia 


Burlington 

Blacksburg 

Pullman 


Vermont 
Virginia 
Washington 


W. M. Liggett.... 
W. L. Hutchinson 


Morgantown 

Madison 


West Virginia 
Wisconsin 


H. J. Waters 




Wyoming 







1 College Station. 

2 Canebrake Station. 
sTuskegee Station. 



estate Station. 

5 Storrs Station. 

6 State Station. 



7 Sugar Station. 

8 North Station. 

9 Fruit Station. 



10 State Station. 

11 College Station. 

12 State Station. 



13 Cornell Station. 



Making Poultry Pay 

Clarence Hewes, Editor Inlaml Poultry Journal. 

BEGINNING. 

The first step toward a venture in poultry raising is the selection of a 
breed. On most farms there will be found already flocks of thorough-bred 
fowls or grades. A flock of well selected barn-yard fowls will prove a 
satisfactory foundation for a practical venture and if thorough-bred birds 
are found the condition is better yet. 

If the fowls on hand are not thorough-bred a definite plan of procedure 
should be adopted toward the end of breeding them up to a uniform type. 
Kill all males and select the best of the females and purchase thorough-bred 
males of the breed you favor and mate them with the females. In only one 
season the result will be surprising. The chicks reared the very first year 
will be uniform in size and the difference in color will be much lessened. By 
the end of the third season, by using strong, vigorous males of the same breed 
each season, a breeder can have his flock almost as unif-orm for all practical 
purposes as if he had always bred thorough-bred birds. 

If no fowls are on hand or if they are of a variety not desired it is 
necessary to make a decision as to what variety shall be adopted. Within 
certain limits the buyer should make his own decision. It is assumed that 
this is a venture in practical poultry raising, although it will be developed 
later that even in the most practical poultry undertaking there is an added 
revenue to be obtained from standard bred fowls. 

The commonly recognized utility breeds are the Plymouth Rocks, the 
Wyandottes, the Rhode Island Reds, the Orpingtons, the Leghorns and 
the Langshans. Of late the Anconas and Campines have made claims for 
popular favor with the Leghorns. The Light Brahma, in cases where large 
size is wanted or where caponizing is contemplated, has great practical value. 
However on combination plants where egg production is depended upon for 
the major revenue the Light Brahma is not given serious consideration 

Within the confines of common sense the breeder should make his choice 

405 



406 



STANDARD BEEEDS OF POULTRY. 




Figure 



Barred Plymouth Rocks 



in this matter largely on his own judgment, for this is one of those cases 
where too much advice only tends to confuse. The different general purpose 

varieties vary little as to 
actual worth and one's 
fancy may safely be 
allowed free range among 
them without practical 
consideration receiving a 
set-back. Success with 
poultry depends so much 
on personal care that it 
is worth much to have a 
flock that really appeals 
to one's affections, for the 
care of such a flock will 
be easy and spontaneous, 
where under different cir- 
cumstances it would be tedious work and drudgery. 

The purchase of the stock itself is a problem indeed ; for not one beginner 
in ten realizes that he is laying the foundation of a future enterprise with 
which he may concern himself the re- 
mainder of his days. It must be remem- 
bered that if a beginning is made with 
cheap stock that only cheap stock will be 
raised, while if high quality stock be used 
for a foundation the very first season 
will find the breeder's yards filled with a 
flock of high class fowls. 

The selection of a breed is but the 
first step for a beginner. Success 
depends upon the loyalty that the new 
breeder shows to the variety of his choice 
and the energy and determination he 
possesses and exerts in bringing his flock 




Figure 



White Plymouth Rocks. 



COMPARATIVE MERITS. 



407 



to the highest state of perfection and 
production. 

THE PLYMOUTH ROCK. 

There are six varieties of Plymouth 
Rocks, the Barred, White, Buff, Colum- 
bian, Partridge and Silver Penciled. In 
size, type and economic qualities they are 
all the same and differ only in color. 
The Plymouth Rock has long been a 
farm favorite, the Barred variety having 
been much more commonly seen. They 
are good layers of medium sized eggs 
which vary in color though, different 
shades of brown. From Plymouth Rocks 
as large a winter egg production can be 
obtained as from any breed. The stan- 
dard weights for this breed are cocks, 
91/4 lbs. ; cockerels, 8 lbs. ; hens, 71/2 lbs. ; pullets, 6 lbs. Among the general 
purpose breeds Plymouth Rocks are excelled in size only by the Orpington 

and Langshan. Plymouth Rocks are 
good foragers but stand confinement 
well; they grow rapidly and make both 
excellent breeders and roasters. This is 
one of the best breeds for caponizing. 

WYANDOTTES. 

The eight varieties of Wyandottes 
are the Silver, Golden, White, Buff, 
Black, Partridge, Silver Penciled and 
Columbian. The Silver was the original 
variety ; the White is the most popular. 
Figure 4. Buff Orpingtons. "^^ all practical purposes the different 




Figure 



White Wyandottes. 




408 



STANDARD BREEDS OF POULTRY. 



varieties differ only in color. Wyandottes are slightly smaller than Plymouth 
Rocks and in shape are plumper and shorter bodied. Their economic qualities 

are the same as those of the Plymouth 
Rock. By some they are claimed to 
make better broilers and to be more 
economically kept. 

The standard weights for Wyan- 
dottes are as follows, cocks, Sy^ lbs. ; 
cockerels, 7I/2 lbs. ; hens, 6I/2 lbs. ; pullets, 
51/2 lbs. 

Wyandottes have low, close-fitting, 
%^"'' Rose combs which seldom suffer from 

Figure 5. White Orpingtons. frOSting. Cockcrcls make gOOd CapOUS. 




ORPINGTONS. 



This is the largest of the clean-legged breeds of poultry as well as the 
largest of the admitted general purpose breeds. Only three varieties — the 
Buff, White and Black — are recognized 
by the American Poultry Association, 
although the Blue and Diamond Jubilee 
varieties are bred in some number, 
particularly in England where they have 
received a fuller recognition. They are 
good layers the year round, make excel- 
lent broilers and roasters and as capons 
rank with the very best. 

Their standard weights are, cocks, 
10 lbs. ; cockerels^ Syo lbs. ; hens, 8 lbs. ; 

pullets, 7 lbs. Figure 6. Blaclc Langshans. 

Tlie Orpingtons are of English origin and have the white skin and legs which 
in that country are preferred to yellow. 




COMPARATIVE MERITS. 



409 



LANGSHANS. 

Langshans are bred in two varieties 
— Black and White, but the Black variety 
is much the more popular and the 
description given here is meant to apply 
particularly to that variety. 

The Langshan is the most active of 
all the feffther-legged breeds and is the 
only one that deserves practical recog- 
nition as a general purpose fowl. It has 
obtained much favor as a practical farm 
fowl and in activity and economic quali- 
ties ranks with the Plymouth Rock and 
Wyandotte. The eggs of the Langshan 
are slightly larger and are of a more 
decided brown tint than those of the Figure 7 Snigie Comb uhoac inland Reds. 

American varieties. ,. o. ^ t • , - 

fetandard weights 

are: cocks, 91/2 lbs.; 

cockerels, 8 lbs. ; hens, 

71/2 lbs.; pullets, 6 1/2 lbs. 

Langshans have a 

white skin and make 

excellent capons, 

broilers and roasters, 

although their black 

plumage is by some 

considered a handicap 

as a market fowl. 








Figure 8. Single Comb White Leghorns. 



RHODE ISLAND 
REDS. 

Rhode Island Reds 
are bred in tw^o varie- 



410 



STANDARD BREEDS OF POULTRY. 



ties — the Single Comb and Rose Comib. They differ in no other respect save 
comb. They are of the same siize as the Wyandottes but differ from them very 
much in shape, 'being longer in back and having a much rangier appearance 

throughout. Of recent years they have be- 
come very popular as a farm fowl, being the 
only breed that ever threatened the Barred 
Plymouth Rock's standing in this respect. 
They are good year round layers ; 
mature quickly and make good broilers 
or roasters, also good capons. They are 
admittedly one of the most valuable of 
general purpose fowls. They are good 
rangers and stand confinement without 

Figure 9. Light Brahmas. channg. 




LEGHORNS. 



We have five varieties of Leghorns according to color — the Brown, 
White, Buff, Black and Silver. Of these 
the first three are further subdivided 
according to comb, there being both Rose 
and Single comb varieties in the Brown, 
White and Buff. 

Leghorns are non-sitters, lay white 
eggs of good size and are generally 
accredited with being one of the best 
laying breeds. As foragers they are un- 
excelled, but stand confinement well. 
They are more nervous than the larger 
breeds and are more easily excited. 

They are small in size and mature 
early. The chicks make profitable broilers but as roasters they harden too 
quickly. Caponizing is not profitable with this breed. 




Figure 10. Pekin Ducks. 



COMPARATIVE MERITS. 



411 



THE LIGHT BRAHMAS. 



The Light Brahma is the largest of all breeds of poultry recognized in 
this country. It is not commonly classed 
among general purpose breeds of poultry. 

In districts where caponizing is much 
practiced the Brahma rises to its greatest 
economic value. Brahmas and Brahma 
crosses are most desired for caponizing 
purposes as they attain to the largest size 
and possess an excellent quality of tlesh. 
As layers many other breeds are superior. 

As broilers the Brahma is good and as 
roasters excellent. Standard weights are ; 
cocks, 12 lbs.; cockerels, 10 lbs.; hens, 9i/^ 
lbs. ; pullets, 8 lbs. 

The Dark Brahma is smaller in size than the Light; does not equal it in 
value for capons or soft roasters and does not rank any better as a layer. 




FijTuic 11 Indian Runnci Uuciv 



PEKIN DUCKS. 



The Pekin Duck is the leading market duck of America. It is a rapid 

grower and the ducklings are ready for 
market at from eight to ten weeks of 
age, when they will weigh six pounds or 
more per pair. With ducks as with 
cockerels the greatest profit is made by 
marketing them as soon after they reach 
a profitable age as possible. Adult ducks 
seldom bring a price on the market that 
offers any profit for their rearing, while 
the eight and ten week old duckling will 
be a money maker. Ducks make rapid 

Figure 12. iEmbden Geese. growth and are voracious eaters. The 




412 



STANDARD BREEDS OF POULTRY. 




Figure 13. 



Bronze Turkeys. 



most profitable method of feeding ducks 
is to make a large part of their ration a 
mash in which vegetables are cooked and 
containing a good percentage of meat 
food. Grain of course is relished by 
ducks and should be supplied in 
moderate quantities; the greater part of 
the food supplied, however, for economical 
results should be soft feed and mash. 
An ample supply of drinking water must 
be kept close to the feeding place. The 
duck does not drink a greater amount of 
water than the hen but when eating soft 

feed will make frequent trips to the water pan for the purpose of cleaning 

and rinsing the mouth and nostrils. 

Have the watering vessel sufficiently 

deep for the duck to immerse its bill 

up to the eyes. Ducks are not subject 

to vermin and are afflicted with few 

diseases. The most common trouble 

among adult ducks is a rheumatic leg 

weakness which strangely enough is 

caused by keeping them in damp sleep- 
ing quarters. If the floors and litter 

in the house are kept dry this trouble 

will not appear. The Pekin Duck 

will lay almost daily during the late 

winter and early summer and the 

fertility of the eggs is usually high. 

Hens or incubators make the best 

hatchers for duck eggs. Ducklings 

are easily reared by artificial means. 

Ducklings should be fed six or eight 

times daily with a wet mash of bran, 

com meal, shorts, beef scrap and pj^^j.^ ^^ .^^ite Holland Turkeys. 




COMPARATIVE MERITS. 413 

cooked vegetables. Young ducks need no water for swimming purposes but 
drinking water must be supplied as for adult ducks. Young ducks must be 
kept out of the sun during warm weather. Feathers are a considerable source 
of revenue where ducks are kept; they are not plucked annually like geese 
but when dressing all the soft body feathers should be saved and are worth 
from fifty to seventy-five cents per pound. 

INDIAN RUNNER DUCKS. 

The Indian Runner Duck is called the Leghorn of the duck family and is 
reputed to be the heaviest laying of all ducks. Indian Runners are bred in 
three varieties, the White, Fawn and White and English Penciled. The three 
varieties have the same economic qualities and differ only in color. This duck 
gets its name from its erect carriage and the fact that it does not waddle like 
other breeds. Although the Indian Runner Duck is not as large as the 
Pekin it nevertheless is an excellent market duck but is kept by many for 
egg production. The friends of the Indian Runner claim for it that it will lay 
as many eggs per year as the average hen and that in localities where there 
is a ready market for duck eggs it is a most profitable fowl to keep. 

GEESE. 

The popular varieties of the goose family are the Toulouse, the Embden 
and the African. These are the largest varieties of geese and of these three 
the Toulouse are the largest. The goose receives and really requires little 
attention on the farm. The adults are capable of taking care of themselves 
under almost any conditions. The goose is a great forager and when available 
grass is a large part of its food. The ganders are apt to prove pugnacious 
and are something of a nuisance in the poultry yard. Some keepers of geese 
pluck them annually for their feathers but for the most part they are kept 
to supply a feast for the big holiday dinners. The goslings make rapid growth 
and are hardy. They should be fed frequently when young or until they can 
forage in the fields. Geese are seldom seen in large flocks. They are not as 
prolific as the hen or duck. Commercial ventures in goose raising have 
not proved tempting. 



414 INCUBATORS AND BROODERS. 



TURKEYS. 



The Bronze, White Holland and Bourbon Red turkeys are the popular 
varieties. The former is the largest and most commonly seen. The two latter 
varieties, while smaller, are none the less profitable. The adult turkey is one of 
the hardiest of all domesticated fowls. For the first six or eight weeks of 
their lives young turkeys require the closest of attention and must be kept 
up during wet days and dewy mornings. After that age, however, when they 
begin to "shoot the red," as it is called, they may be permitted the range of 
the fields where they will find most of their food until fall. 

Turkeys are profitable because of their fondness for range which keeps 
them away from the granary and when marketed their carcasses have cost 
the farmer little in foods. 

Turkeys are commonly marketed alive prior to the Thanksgiving or 
Christmas holidays and prices are invariably such as to bring a considerable 
profit into the hands of him or her who has a good flock to sell. 

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION AND BROODING. 

It is not practicable to produce any considerable number of chicks without 
the aid of artificial incubation. The question is not whether incubators are 
superior to hens as hatchers but is one of getting good results from the! 
incubator because it must be accepted as a necessity. 

The best incubator is the cheapest — it will give larger hatches of better 
chicks and will prove more durable. Have faith in the machine, follow the 
direction of the manufacturer for operating it and above all exercise every 
care as to the fertility of the eggs you entrust to it — this is to be your 
task — the providing of hatchable eggs, and if attended to satisfactory hatches 
will doubtless be the result. Do not expect 100 per cent, hatches. Many 
poultrymen who have for years conducted successful practical poultry farms 
coimt sixty to seventy per cent, a good average. 

Any location where good ventilation and an equable temperature are 
found will prove a satisfactory location for the incubator. It is by no 
means necessary that it should be placed in a cellar, although such is an 
excellent place if well ventilated and free from bad odors. Observe religiously 
the instructions for turning and airing the eggs because on these largely 



FEEDING THE CHICKS. 415 

depends the quality of the hatch and if neglected cripples and weaklings 
will be numerous. 

Leave the chicks in the incubator for forty-eight hours after the first 
liave hatched, open the doors only when necessary to remove shells, which 
should be done to prevent the telescoping of eggs. Have the brooder warmed 
up to the required point before transferring the chicks to it and if the weather 
is cold take care that the chicks are not exposed in the transfer. Bear in 
mind that a sudden though brief change from the 100 degree temperature 
of the incubator to an outdoor temperature of 30 degrees or less can do a 
lot of harm. For the first twelve or twenty-four hours in the brooder the 
chicks should be confined in the warmer section until they locate the warmer 
and cooler places. If this is not done they are likely to crowd into comers 
distant from the heat and become chilled. After they have located the 
source of heat they may be allowed the run of the entire brooder and will 
run into the cooler compartment where they will scratch and exercise lustily 
only to hurry back to the warmer compartment when they become cold. 
There is only one way to regulate the temperature of the brooder and that 
is by watching the chicks. If they are too hot or too cold their actions will 
plainly show it. If they crowd together and cheep dismally they are cold; 
if too hot they are not so noisy but nevertheless you will detect a note of 
discontent in their voices and will find the more robust ones panting with 
beaks open and wings distended. When everything is all right the voices of 
the chicks express supreme satisfaction — a pleasing little talking is going 
on while the little fellows scratch in the litter and scurry about. 

FEEDING THE CHICKS. 

If the chicks have been kept in the incubator 48 hours they should have 
their first meal soon after being removed to the brooder. The dry-feeding 
which is the safest is presented here first. Let the first feed be of grit. A 
white or light colored grit is preferable because this is the chick's first meal 
and something bright is needed to attract his attention. It is not intended 
of course that the chick shall be allowed to fill his crop wdth grit, but as the 
subsequent meal is to be of grain it is desired to get some grit into the crop 
so that grinding material will be on duty when the first food reaches the 



416 FEEDING THE CHICKS. 

gizzard. Some of the chicks will prove surprisingly indifferent to the first 
m^al but by tapping lightly on the floor of the brooder practically all can be 
induced to eat. When all have taken grit then the real meal begins. On the 
floor of the brooder or better on a paper spread for that purpose scatter 
prepared chick food. This is a mixture of cracked grain and seeds and can 
be obtained from almost any feed store. If not obtainable in your vicinity a 
mixture of finely cracked corn, crushed wheat, cut or clipped oats, millet 
seed, etc., will make a good substitute. Look carefully to the quality of the 
grains in the feed. If they smell sour or mouldy do not use them under any 
circumstances. Allow the chicks to eat plentifully of their first meal and 
provide water with the chill removed in some receptacle which prevents 
them wetting themselves. After fifteen or twenty minutes remove all food 
and tuck the chicks into the warm brooder compartment where, like a man 
after a full meal, they will show the perfect comfort they feel by taking a 
nap. The chicks have now learned to eat and henceforth for several weeks 
should be fed five times daily. Provide plenty of fine soft litter, clover chaff 
preferred, and scatter the chick feed in this and let the little fellows scratch 
for it which they will do readily enough. In this way you keep them busy 
and provide the exercise needed while confined in the brooder. Fine grit and 
charcoal should be kept constantly before the chicks in boxes or hoppers and 
after the third day a small quantity of beef scrap should be supplied. It will 
result in increased growth and may be kept in hoppers if the chicks do not 
take too great a liking to it. If consumed in too large quantities, however, 
it causes scours and diarrhoea. Water must be supplied constantly and the 
vessels should be cleaned frequently and scalded. Fountains with tops, of 
the inverted can t5T)e, are best as they keep the chicks from getting in the 
water. Green foods in the form of lettuce, onion tops, steamed- cut clover 
are valuable relishes and the chicks will eat them greedily. 

After several weeks the time between meals may be made longer, feeding 
first four and then three times daily. At the end of four weeks of age scratch 
feed may be substituted for chick feed. It is cheaper and has almost the 
same constituents only the grains are larger. 

In mild weather the chicks may be permitted to run outside the brooder 
when four or five days old. If the weather is cold or inclement they should 
be kept in, A runway should be provided so that the chicks will not wander 



FEEDING THE CHICKS. 417 

away. Later this can be removed unless other brooders are located near, in 
which case peraianent runways are necessary because chicks even after they 
have become accustomed to one brooder will sometimes all of one accord 
crowTl into another brooder, completely congesting it and leaving others empty. 

The dry feeding method for chicks above described is recommended 
for beginners as one that is probably more widely used than any other and 
moreover is an extremely safe method for beginners, as the dry grains fed 
remain clean and wholesome even if not eaten immediately, whereas wet foods 
must be guarded carefully against souring and fermentation. 

The method given below is used by one of the most successful chick 
growers in the country and in tribute to him we will call it the Hockings' 
Method. 

The first meal should be well-baked white bread about a week old, wet 
wdth sweet milk and squeezed out until it crumbles nicely. Feed only twice 
the first day, about 9 : 30 a. m. and 4 : 00 p. m., and keep fresh water before 
them all the time, from the first time you feed. The best way to fee'd the 
first two or three times is to spread a dark cloth over the floor in the 
exercising room of the brooder and put all the chicks on it, then scatter feed 
and they will begin at once to eat. Only leave them out ten minutes, then 
put them all back in the nursery and shut them in and put drinking fountains 
in with them; take up the cloth and shake it and it will be ready for the 
next time. Don't ever leave feed before them; if you do you can expect 
trouble. At 4:00 p. m., feed again, same way, and give fresh water every 
time with the chill off. It is a good practice to scald out the drinking 
fountains at least every other day. Run hover temperature in cold weather 
at 90 to 95 degrees, and in warm weather at 80 to 85 degrees, reducing to 
80 as soon as chicks are two weeks old. 

For the second day feed three times — morning, noon and night — bread and 
milk the same as first day, putting them back in the nursery each time and 
shutting them in. Most of them have learned to eat by this time. Don't 
leave any feed before them. 

For the third day feed four times — morning, 10 : 30 a. ni., 2 : 30 p. m. and 
evening. Now they are getting lively and most of them will come into the 
exercising room themselves if you knock on the floor with your fingers. 
Eight minutes will be long enough to leave feed before them now, as they eat 



418 FEEDING THE CHICKS. 

faster. You can leave the door of the exercising room open during the 
middle of the day now, shutting them in at night again. Of course, in real 
warm weather you do not have to be so particular about shutting them in 
the nursery. The main thing is not to chill them or get them too warm 
either. Now this is the day for their first grit. Scatter a little before them 
just before you feed at 10 : 30 so that each one can get only a few particles. 
Be careful, not too much grit, but any sharp, coarse sand will do. Feed 
nothing but good bread wet with milk (or water ocoasionally is about as good 
as milk) always squeezing out until it crumbles. 

On the fourth day be careful as they are crazy to eat. Feed four times 
a day from now on; fill them full but do not leave any food before them. 
Give them one feed of grit a day from now until they are two weeks old, 
when you can leave grit before them all the time. Do not forget to scald out 
drinking fountains. 

On the fifth day feed bread and milk three times and for the night feed 
give {hem a meal mixture, wet with water aud squeezed out the same as the 
bread. Do not forget grit and fresh water and always clean up the feed 
should you give them more than they can eat in eight minutes. 

The meal mixture above referred to is composed of forty per cent, corn 
meal, 25 per cent, shorts, 25 per cent, bran and 10 per cent, beef scrap by 
weight. Use yellow corn ground fine and sweet bran and shorts fresh from 
the mill. 

For the sixth day feed bread in the morning, meal mixture at 10:30, 
bread at 2 : 30, and meal mixture at night. Now you can let them out of 
the brooder into the room if it isn't too cold. Have the floor covered with 
litter; barn chaff is best. They know the difference now between dirt and 
feed. You can also scatter a little pin head oat meal in the chaff and teach 
them to scratch. Have litter about one inch deep and a very small handful 
of oat meal is plenty for the first few days. 

For the seventh day feed meal mixture in morning, bread and milk at 
10 : 30, meal mixture at 2 : 30 and at night, not forgetting grit and fresh water. 

For the eighth day the chicks are now ''on their feed," feed the meal 
mixture four times from now on, as regular as possible, with a feed of bread 
occasionally instead of the meal. 

Clean the brooder at least every other day after they are four days old; 



CABE AND MANAGEMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 419 

fill and trim brooder lamp every day, always being careful that it is pat) 
back right and not turned too high. Always call your chicks when you go 
to feed them, and always feed near brooder when outside, then if a storm 
comes up suddenly you can call them in quickly. If at any time your chicks 
get dumpish and don't care to eat, just let them go without one feed; they 
will l)e ready to eat next time all right. Don't show your friends how nicely 
they eat unless they call at feeding time. Don't use any patent chick feed. 
Don't feed sour feed; feed a small handful of feed at a time. Feed only at 
feeding time no matter how many times you go to look at them. They are 
crazy for four or five days; the temptation is great. Danger lies in feeding 
too often or in leaving feed before them. 

Get the brooder ready two or three days before the hatch is coming off. 
Bed brooder with clean straw cut four to six inches long; no chaff or fine 
litter in brooder for first week. Put the chicks in brooder the next morning 
after hatch is over and do not feed until the oldest is 60 hours old. Do not 
keep the eggs for incubation in a cold cellar. Keep them in an ordinary 
living room. Do not let your eggs chill at any time. 

Brooder must be thoroughly warmed up before putting the chicks in, in 
early spring especially. 

These two methods of feeding baby chicks are radically different. The 
dry feeding method is more commonly used, yet users of the wet feed method 
insist that when their method is used and used carefully that results are 
better as regards the growth of the chicks and that losses are reduced to 
the minimum. It will be noticed that in using the wet feeding method the 
great mistakes to be avoided are over feeding and leaving feed before 
the chicks. 

Undoubtedly anyone who will exercise care can have success with either 
method. 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 

The logical time for penning pullets in their winter quarters is November 
first and to be ready for laying at that time they should have been hatched 
in March or early April if of the middle weight breeds and from four to six 
weeks later if of the non-weight varieties. Late hatched birds cannot be 
made to lay in early winter because they are not mature and their substance 



420 CARE AND MANAGEMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 

must go to growth if they are to develop into fowls of standard size and 
weight. There is no season of the year when eggs are scarcer on the average 
farm than in November — the old hens have not yet completed moult and 
the pullets have not yet begun laying. The period of high prices is beginning 
and an egg has several times the value that it will have in the late spring 
and summer months. Do not place birds of mixed ages in the laying pens. 
Select only those that are fully matured and in perfect health. 

The procuring of eggs during the winter months depends upon the 
success with which the conditions that prevail during the natural laying 
season as to food and environment are imitated. The diet of the hen is more 
varied than that of any other farm animal and consists of cereals as repre- 
sented by grains, whole or cracked and seeds ; vegetables as represented by 
beets, cabbage, potatoes, turnips, onions, etc. ; green foods as represented 
by grass, steamed alfalfa, sprouted oats, etc. ; meat foods which when supplied 
must take the form of cut bone, beef scrap, beef meal, etc. ; grit and oyster 
shell. Individual hens vary in their preferences for different foods and as 
it is not possible to cater to the wants of each individual hen that ration is 
best which most nearly accords with the demands of the appetite of the 
average hen. 

Care and methods of feeding are so closely connected with the foods 
used that they should be considered correlatively. The methods of different 
successful poultrymen differ in details but are much alike in the food^ 
supplied and the methods of feeding. A mixed grain ration fed in deep litter 
that will induce exercise is the basis of approved feeding methods. This 
grain mixture is frequently the commercial scratch feed composed af cracked 
corn, kaffir corn, wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, sunflower, etc. The 
farmer, however, can compound his ow^n mixture at a considerable saving in 
cost and will find that results are not appreciably different even when the 
variety of grains is much less than given above. Cracked corn, wheat and 
oats are available on any farm and make a very suitable scratching mixture. 
If located where kaffir corn is a crop it may be used with excellent results 
either to supplement Indian corn or as a substitute. Scratch feed should be 
fed in the litter twice or three times daily. "Wheat or oat straw makes 
excellent litter for poultry houses and should be scattered over the floors of 
the house to a depth of six inches or more. The value of the method ^of 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 421 

feeding grain in litter rests upon the food and upon the fact that the fowls 
are literally forced to scratch for a living, The exercise obtained in 
scratching for the grains keeps the fowls busy, contented and warm. The 
last feed of the day given in the litter should be scattered early enough to 
allow the fowls to scratch out a good feed before dark. Busyness contributes 
to contentment among fowls just as among men and he who keeps his fowls 
hustling throughout the day will find his returns in the egg basket. When 
fowls are found on the roosts or huddled in the corners of the house on 
wintry days conditions are wrong and results will be poor. 

To supplement the grain ration fed in the litter a mash composed of 
bran, com meal, ground oats and beef scrap is necessary for best results. 
If a low grade flour can be secured tOf^dd to the ingredients of the mash at 
not too great a cost it is advisable to include it. Linseed meal, cottonseed 
meal and gluten meal, frequently recommended as components of laying mashes, 
give a better ration theoretically but their necessity is not borne out in 
practical experience, and as they are sometimes difficult to procure and almost 
invariably increase the cost of the mash unless one is particularly fortunate 
in location with reference to the sources of manufacture of these meals, it is 
not advisable to include them in a ration recommended for average farm 
use. A mash compounded of two parts bran, one part corn meal, one part 
ground oats, one part shorts or low grade flour and one part beef scrap is 
excellent. In beef scrap always demand the very best quality. This is a 
product which if of poor quality will cause diarrhoea or scours in adult 
fowls and wall sometimes cause large mortalities in chicks. A good beef 
scrap should be smooth and soft to the hand and should have an odor much 
like ground cracklings. Refuse any scrap that smells like decayed meat or 
contains any evidence of mould or rot. It is important, of course, to look 
well to the quality of all foods used but exercise the greatest caution when 
buying scrap. 

The feeding value of a mash is of the same value whether fed wet or 
dry. Wet mashes, however, if fed in greater quantities than are consumed 
at the time are liable to become foul or sour unless the caretaker is willing 
to take the time to return to the houses and rem'ove all that is left after each 
feeding. A dry mash can be placed in self feeding hoppers containing a 
supply sufficient for a week or more and it will be found that the fowls will 



422 CARE AND MANAGEMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 

not gorge themselves as they would do with a wet mash. On the whole the 
dry feeding method is much more saving of time and laboi- and has come to 
be the favored method of feeding mash. 

Grit, oyster shell and charcoal should be kept in hoppers constantly 
before all fowls. They are inexpensive and are necessities. 

The keen relish which fowls show in winter for green foods and 
vegetables is evidence enough of their value and their cost is little. Potatoes, 
field beets, cabbage, rutabagas, etc., when split and impaled on spikes 
will be eagerly devoured to the very last bit and an occasional feeding of 
chopped onions will be eaten with avidity. 

Sprouted oats have recently become a favored article for winter green 
food. Oat sprouters are manufactured by many concerns who manufacture 
poultry supplies and justify their cost in the rapidity with which they enable 
the farmer or poultryman to grow a supply of this succulent winter food. 
Oats can, however, be sprouted more slowly by placing a quantity of oats 
(only oats capable of germination can be used) in shallow boxes with 
bottoms which contain small cracks and holes for drainage and by keeping 
them in a place sufficiently warm to induce germination. The oats must be 
kept constantly wet without permitting water to gather in the boxes, as such 
an occurrence will cause mildew and kill the germinating properties of the 
oats. The boxes in which the oats are placed should be about three inches in 
depth and to prevent the top layer of oats from drying out a heavy wet cloth 
or burlap sack should be placed over each box. If properly cared for the oats 
will be ready to feed in from one to two weeks, depending upon the warmth 
of the room in which they are kept. The fine fibrous-like roots and the' 
heavier sprouts will penetrate the whole mass, making of each box a solid 
mat which will come from the box in one section. A flock of one hundred 
hens will consume at one feeding a section of four to six square feet and it 
can be fed every other day with good results. 

A constant and clean supply of water should of course be kept before 
the fowls at all times. If supplied often enough during cold weather to have 
a supply always before the fowls with the chill removed the good effect will 
be noticed. The type of vessel used should be such as to permit of easy and 
thorough cleaning and should be placed where litter and dirt can not be 
scratched into it. 



PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES. 



423 



Feeding periods should be regular and at the same time each day. When 
the ^owls are listless and seem indifferent to their feed cut down the amount 
fed. If on the other hand they seem constantly hungry and seem reluctant 
to go to roost at night increase the supply. If you achieve the result of 
keeping the birds constantly busy and contented you are on the right track 
and good results are inevitable. 

PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES. 

Poultry houses should be dry, well ventilated, without draughts and well 
lighted. If possible they should face the south and if such an exposure can 
not be provided an eastern frontage is next to be preferred. Too much glass 
is not an advantage as it permits of too great a loss of heat at night. Floors 
may be of cement, boards or dirt. Cement is permanent and gives a smooth 
surface for cleaning but is cold to the feet of the fowls and must be covered 
with several inches of sand or litter. Board floors are easily cleaned and 




Figure 15. End Elevation of Main Curtain from Poultry House. 



424 



PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES. 



warm but must be laid sufficiently high to permit of the dog or eat getting 
under them and the side walls of the house must extend entirely to the 
ground to keep the wind from under the floor. Dirt floors are most economical 
in original cost and are satisfactory for the fowls' comfort; however, they 
must be frequently renewed and are kept clean with more difficulty than 
floors presenting a smooth surface to the shovel or broom. Where dirt is 
used for a floor it should be filled in until six or eight inches higher than 
the level of the surrounding soil. 

Although double walled houses are advocated by some the consensus of 
opinion is that the extra cost of such houses is not justified and few such 




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Figure 16. Front Elevation of One Unit of the Maine Curtain Front Poultry House 



are found. A single walled house made of matched lumber or of plain! 
material with the joints well battened and lined with heavy building paper 
inside will prove warm enough for all practical purposes. Small holes and 
cracks should be stopped to prevent draughts. 

Either shingles or roofing paper make satisfactory roofs, the paper being 
preferred on roofs with small slope. Here more particularly than anywhere 
else in the house good material should be used. 

On many farms will be found houses that possess all the requisites of 
a good poultry house and it is folly to think that a beginning cannot be made 
with poultry without first investing in new buildings. Existing poultry 



PRACTICAL POULTRY • HOUSES. 



425 



buildings on the average farm are likely to possess some of the following 
faults : wrong exposure, too much glass, too little provision for ventilation, 
inconvenient arrangements of roosts and dropping boards, exposure to 
draughts or too small for the number of fowls kept. Any of these faults 
can be remedied with little expense in most cases. 

Practically all of the fowls on the average farm are kept in one house 




Figure 17. Floor Plan of One Unit of the Maine Curtain Front Poultry House. In this and the 

following two figures the significance of the letters is as follows: A^trap nests; 

B — runways to yards; C — dry mash trough; D — roosts; E — walk; F — front 

opening; G — coop for broody hens; H — spikes to hang green 

food on; I — grit trough; J — curtain front. 



and if the num'ber is large the house is almost invariably overcrowded. The 
only remedy for this is the building of an additional or new house. The 
most approved practice in management for winter egg production con- 
templates the confinement of the fowls to the house on many days and the 



426 



PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES. 



house must provide sufficient room for scratching and exercise, and no more 
serious a mistake could be made than to crowd together in one lot more 
fowls than the house will provide with room and ventilation. At least six 
square feet of floor space should be provided for every fowl to be wintered 
in the house and if such space cannot be provided the extra hens should be 
disposed of. 

If it is considered necessary to build a new house none is more deserving 
of recommendation than some form of the curtain front house of which a 




Figure 18. Interior of Maine Curtain Front Poultry House. 



popular type is illustrated herewith. This house was developed in pursuit 
of "fresh air" ideas at the Maine Experiment Station and is favored there 
over all the varied styles and types of houses that have been used at that 
station. This house is ideal for farm poultry raising as it contemplates the 
liousing of fowls in colonies of the size that will incorporate the average 
farm flock of hens kept through the winter. In arrangements it is convenient 
and can be enlarged upon by simply building on new units as they are needed. 



PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES. 427 

Considering the fact that many will doubt the worth of the curtain 
front house for cold weather service and that the type described here has 
been tested thoroughly at the Maine Experiment Station, which is located in 
the Northernmost latitudes of our country, their testimony with reference to 
this point may put many minds at rest : 

"Maine is subject to long spells of severe cold weather, with the 
temperature considerably below zero at night, and about zero during the 
day, and with a good deal of high wind. During such rough weather the 
bedding on the floor has been kept comparatively dry. The yields of eggs 
during the severe weather and immediately following it are rarely below 
those immediately preceding it. It should be borne in mind that had the 
weather remained mild all the time the hens probably would have increased 
in production rather than remained stationary. They are doubtless affected 
by the severe weather, but not seriously, as they uniformly begin to increase 
in production very soon after the weather becomes normal for midwinter. 

"These curtain front houses have all proved eminently satisfactory. The 
egg yields per bird 'have been better in these houses than in warmed ones." 



LUMBER REQUIRED FOR MAINE CURTAIN FRONT HOUSE. 

Spruce is specified because it is the material actually used in the houses 
described and illustrated. Any other equally strong lumber will do. Amounts 
are given in board feet unless otherwise specified. 

The following estimates do not allow for waste in cutting: 
Nine cedar posts, 6 feet long, 6-inch butts; 270 feet 2x4 inch spruce for 
studs, door, window and coop frames; 550 feet 2x6 inch plank for floor 
joists, outside walk, etc. ; 370 feet 6x6 inch spruce for sills ; 40 feet 4x4 inch 
spruce for corner studs and wall stringers ; 70 feet 2x3 inch spruce for roosts, 
etc. ; 235 feet 2x5 inch spruce for rafters ; 115 feet 1x7 inch spruce for rafter 
braces ; 33 feet 1x9 inch spruce for doors ; IOI/2 feet 1x6 inch spruce for 
door braces ; 3200 feet boards for outside, floor, nests, etc. ; 20 linear feet 2x2 
inch planed to l%xl%^ inch ; 12 linear feet 2x% inch ; 65 board feet 1-in. 
spruce for feed and grit troughs; 35 linear feet spruce for curtain frames; 
20 latlis ; 12,000 shingles ; 11 feet boards, spruce, for roost frames. 



428 POSSIBLE PROFITS AND EXPENSE. 

HARDWARE. 

Four pair heavy 6-in. T hinges with screws ; 4 pair light 3-iii. hinges with 
.screws ; 2 pair 3x3-in. butts with screws ; 60 pair 2x2-in. butts with screws ; 
40 lbs. 3-penny shingle nails ; 100 lbs. 8-penny common nails ; 35 lbs. 10-penny 
common nails; 15 lbs. 20-penny common nails; 2 lbs. 3-penny common nails; 
1 lb. 3-inch staples ; 2 thumb latches complete with screws. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Two storm windows, 12 lights 10x12 inches; 6 squares building paper; 
10 feet 42-inch poultry netting ; 141/2 feet 42-inch 10-ounce duck. 

From the above anyone can compute from prices prevailing in his own 
locality the cost of constructing one unit on the Maine curtain front house. 
The expense incurred would not be more than for any other well-constructed 
house of the same capacity. It is not advisable to endeavor to save by using 
cheap lumber or lighter construction. A house -built on these specifications 
will last for years. The cloth fronts must of course be renewed from time to 
time but will last a season at least. 

BREEDING HOUSES. 

Houses for breeders need not be more than ten or twelve feet square or 
in that proportion, as one mating cannot contain more than ten or twelve 
birds. For breeding houses the same features are desirable as in laying- 
houses. Ventilation and freedom from moisture are particularly desirable 
as tending to keep the health of the breeding stock good. It is not beyond 
the ingenuity of anyone to construct a smaller house with general features 
of the curtain front house preserved in its structure. 

POSSIBLE PROFITS AND EXPENSE, 

The building of a poultry house or the preparation of pens and equip- 
ment are tangible things and the cost can be estimated to a point sufficiently 
accurate for most of us. But when it comes to anticipating the profits or 
expense that will be enjoyed or incurred in a venture in poultry raising a 
woeful lack of dependable data is noticed. Few poultrymen are a;ble to tell 



POSSIBLE PROFITS AND EXPENSE. 429 

just what the cost of food per hen per year has been and fewer yet can show 
any accurate and trustworthy statement based on actual carefully kept 
figures as to the profits that can be made. 

Mr. T. E. Quisenberry, director of the Mountain Grove, Mo., Experiment 
Station at- which during the past two years egg laying contests have been 
held has given in some particulars the most dependable information on many 
points. In the contests conducted by Mr. Quisenberry under state supervi- 
sion and therefore official and undoubtedly accurate he procured during the 
first year's contest an average of 134 eggs per hen from all hens in the contest. 
For the second year the average was 143 eggs per hen. The birds in thei 
contest included pens of practically all the standard breeds from Bralimas to 
Leghorns. The fowls came from dozens of different breeders in a dozen or 
more states. It seems that the results secured by Mr. Quisenberry may be 
accepted as that which can be obtained from any well bred flock of standard 
bred fowls. It will be noted that in the first year's contest conducted that 
an average egg. production, of just a little over eleven dozen eggs was secured 
in the year. In the second year's contest an average of one less than twelve 
dozen eggs was secured. Taking the average production for the two years 
at eleven and one-half dozen it is easy to compute for any locality the value 
of those eggs per hen for the year. In the vicinity of Indianapolis these 
eggs would have brought without any recourse to private marketing 
approximately $3.00 per hen. Says Mr. Quisenberry — "These results are 
valuable because they are average results the same as any one can obtain 
with a Avell selected flock of thoroughbred fowls." Bear in mind that he 
had among the birds in these contests many fowls of the breeds not commonly 
recognized as heavy layers and that they reduced the average results in egg 
production by a not inconsiderable amount. 

During the second year's contest closing November 15, 1913, the average 
grain consumption per hen was 36 lbs. The consumption of mash was about 
the same. The composition of the grain and mash mixtures did not vary 
materially from those recommended elsewhere in this section and any man 
can compute the cost of* feeding a hen per year with the above figures and the 
prices of food stuffs in his own particular locality. 

To make money with poultry one must learn to get results. He must be 
able to so care for his breeding stock as to get fertile, hatchable eggs. He 



430 CAPONIZING AND ITS PROFITS. 

must be able to get out good percentage hatches; he must be able to rear 
a large percentage of the chicks hatched, and he must be able to get eggs 
from his pullets when they have reached a laying age. Briefly stated these 
are the points of knowledge that must be acquired. There is money and 
good money in poultry raising for the man that acquires the ability to do 
these things. 

THE VALUE OF THE THOROUGH-BRED HEN. 

Mr. Quisenberry, the man referred to above, is authority for the statement 
that the average annual egg production of the farm hen is less than seventy- 
five per hen. The egg yield procured in the Mountain Grove contests from 
thorough-bred fowls was more than twice this average. The conclusion 
is obvious. 

The scrub has no place on the successful poultry farm as it has none on 
the successful stock or dairy farm. Even though the thorough-bred hen laid 
no more eggs than the scrub still it would be decidedly advisable to use only 
thorough-breds. The thorough-bred is uniform in type ; the requirements of 
the different individuals in the flock are more nearly alike ; the character 
of the offspring can be more closely anticipated ; and an added market is 
secured. 

No matter how practical may be the basis of any venture in poultry 
raising it should be borne in mind that there is always an added income to 
be realized by the breeder of thorough-bred fowls aside from all practical 
advantages. There is a demand in any locality for thorough-bred stock— 
whether poultry, horses, sheep or cattle. In suppljdng this demand an added 
income is received. The farm poultryman, even though breeding for eggs 
and meat, should endeavor to keep his birds as close to standard requirements 
as possible without interference with their utility qualities. It will b6 found 
profitable to do so as many opportunities will come to dispose of birds at 
prices that offer several times the profit that could otherwise be procured. 
v 

CAPONIZING AND ITS PROFITS. 

Caponizing is not by any means a new practice, being as old probably 
as the Christian Era, although it is only recently that it has taken on any 



ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 431 

commercial importance. Our European cousins being ever more alert 
for appetizing edibles, have taken hold of the practice more quickly 
and more extensively, and the knowledge of the capon's superior flesh is 
known among them by every poulterer and marketma^. The American 
poultrymen have taken up the practice particularly in the East, with 
uniformly satisfactory results, and from them it is gradually spreading 
throughout the West and even our ever conservative farmers and small 
poultrymen are taking it up, 

THE OPERATION IS NOT DIFFICULT. 

The operation is not at all difficult, even inexperienced persons being 
successful with their first efforts, although their losses are of course greater 
than those of experienced operators ; the danger is not so much in the possible 
fatality of the operation as in the possibility of incompleteness, thereby 
producing slips. The beginner should take his time with his first experiment, 
and if he feels that he is inflicting too much pain on the fowl he should kill 
it and proceed with the operation on the dead bird. Make yourself familiar 
with the operation on the first fowl and proceed the same thereafter with 
live ones. If at any time you think that you have fatally injured a bird 
kill it at once and bleed it and it will be as fit for the table as any other fowl. 

THE ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 

The impression seems to have taken hold with many that the greatest 
advantage of the capon over the cockerel is in its superior size. In truth a 
capon is only a trifle larger than a well cared for cockerel, but when a large 
number of cockerels are carried through the winter and all housed together 
they are in fact much inferior to the capon in weight as in every other respect. 
However, the real advantages of caponizing lie in the superior quality of 
the flesh that the capon carries and in the docility and peaceful disposition 
of the fowl. Fifty to one hundred capons may be housed together with as 
much safety as so many hens, but that num])er of cockerels would be in a 
perpetual state of turmoil. Any one who has tried to carry a considerable 
number of cockerels through the winter will understand -this condition. The 



4i{2 ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 

flesh of the capon is of superior grain and flavor and is tender. The markei; 
prices range from twelve to twenty-five cents per pound and the market is 
never glutted. 

The great advantage of caponizing on the farm is that it offers a 
profitable means of disposing of late hatched cockerels and those that may 
have for any reason been kept after reaching the age of broilers or fries. 
Such birds represent one of the largest sources of loss to be experienced on 
the average farm. Almost all chickens raised on the farm are disposed of as 
springers; for the early hatches this is a profitable method but for the later 
ones it is not. Late chicks hatched during May and June reach the market 
when springers are plentiful and cheap. It would prove much more profitable 
to the farmer to keep these cockerels and caponize them. After a cockerel 
reaches the broiler stage every week that he is kept makes him more expensive 
and of less value, so that as a yearling fowl he will have cost much in feed 
and care and wull actually be worth less than when ten weeks of age. 

The capon is simply an unsexed cockerel and caponizing has just the 
same effect on the cockerel that castration has on the bull or boar — tames 
the disposition and permits the fowl to make growth without the flesh 
becoming tough or stringy. 

LOSSES IN THE OPERATION. 

With experienced operators the losses attendant upon the operation are 
less than five per cent. This includes all that die from the operation either 
immediately or afterwards. The percentage grows more as one's experience 
is less. Some operators lose as high as fifty per cent, of their first batch. 
Such losses as this are due to bunglesomeness and if such a person does not 
find his efficiency increasing rapidly he had best induce some one else to do 
his caponizing for him. 

PROFITS AND MARKETS. 

A yearling cockerel Avhen sold on the market brings from twenty to 
fifty cents. A capon of the same age will bring from $1.20 to $2.00. The 
food cost has been the same and the capon has undoubtedly been the less 
trouble. The above are market prices and can be obtained in any market 



ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 433 

center. Our village and towns are not good market places for capons and 
one would have trouble in obtaining market quotations there. In our larger 
cities, however, the market has never been half way supplied. The managers 
of wholesale poultry houses and fashionable butchers of Indianapolis state 
that they are ready at all times to pay market quotations and that the demand 
has never been met. 

CAPONIZING NOT A CRUEL PRACTICE. 

No doubt many persons who realize the advantages of caponizing are 
deterred from practising the operation out of tender-heartedness, disliking 
to inflict pain on any dumb creature. In fact, the operation is far from being 
cruel and is not extremely painful. It is seldom indeed that the bird gives 
voice to any outcry during the operation and even during the most critical 
stage will peck at the flies that light near him. The most pain seems to 
be caused by the original incision and the subsequent probing among the 
viscera and the severing of the seminal cord causes no evident pain whatever. 
When released the fowls will eat greedily from the long fast that preceded 
the operation. 

It must be remembered too, that the birds escape much suffering through 
the operation. Their pugnacious dispositions are changed and that period 
of nagging attended with bloody combs and sometimes blinded eyes that all 
cockerels experience, is escaped by the capon on account of its altered nature. 

THE INSTRUMENTS. 

Caponizing instruments are manufactured by several companies, but the 
different sets do not vary much either in style or price. The description 
given herewith includes all necessary instruments. All sets include the 
following : a knife for making the incision, a spreader for holding the ribs apart 
and the incision open, a hook for tearing away the inside membrane, a probe 
for pushing aside the entrails should they be in the way, an instrument for 
catching and removing the testicles and a pair of forceps. 

The accompanying illustration shows the instruments with several differ- 
ent styles of spreaders and removing instruments. Figure C shows the knife 



434 



ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 




Figure 19. Showing Instruments used in Caponizing. Letters 

a, b and i show instruments for removing testicles; d, e 

and k show spring spreaders; g is a probe; h 

a hook and f the forceps. 



ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 435 

which is merely a piece of well tempered steel capable of being brought to a 
very fine edge. The shape or style of the knife is of little consequence, but 
the quality of the steel is of supreme importance. Figures D, E and K show 
three different styles of spring spreaders. They differ little in the manner 
of use, all being designed for holding the incision open and are self retaining 
when properly inserted in the incision. Figure G shows the probe and H the 
hook for tearing away the membrane. Figure F represents the forceps. 
Figures A, B and I show different styles of instruments for the removal of 
the testicle. The ihstrument A is commonly called the canula and consists 
of a hollow tube through which a wire loop is threaded. The loop is slipped 
over the testicle and then tightened by pulling on the free ends of the wires 
and the testicle is removed by twisting the tube. The instrument B is the 
slotted scoop. The testicle is gathered into it in such a way that the cord is 
caught in the slot and severed by the sharp edges. Efficiency with this in- 
strument depends on keeping the edge of the slot very sharp. Figure I shows 
an instrument having a slotted lip on which the testicle is caught, then by 
pulling on the attached sliding lever the lips of the slot close over one an- 
other, severing the cord and permitting the removal of the testicle. 

Aside from the above instruments it is necessary to have a basin of 
water to which has been added a slight portion of carbolic acid for antiseptic 
purposes and some bits of sponge or antiseptic cotton for absorbing such 
blood as may be split in the abdominal cavity. 

THE CAPONIZING TABLE. 

The operator should be supplied with some sort of a stand upon which 
to place the bird. Many operators use a barrel. This does very well if holes 
are made in the bottom to permit of the use of cords and weights to hold the 
fowl's legs and wings. It is best, however, to construct a table for the pur- 
pose on the following lines : it should be somewhat higher than the waist so 
as not to require much stooping. The top should be about two feet in di- 
ameter and should be so arranged that it may be tilted and fastened securely 
in any position. This makes it possible to get the sunlight where you want 
it. The stand should be also fitted with holes through which the cords for 
holding the fowl may be inserted. A box or bench should, be placed near the 



436 



ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 



stand to hold the instruments and other paraphernalia. The cords and weights 
referred to are cords with weights of about a pound each tied to each end. 
These are passed through the openings in the stand and then over the fowl's 
legs and wings and keep them from kicking or flopping while on the table. 

THE BEST BREEDS— AGE AND SIZE. 

The American and Asiatic breeds of poultry make the best capons. The 
Orpingtons, too, are excellent. The operation should be performed just 
before the combs of the oockerels begin to "shoot." At this period the 
birds are about three months old and weigh from one and a half to two 
pounds each. Never caponize birds over five months old or weighing more 
than three pounds as the operation would result fatally in so many instances 
as to prove unprofitable. Leghorns do not make good capons. They reach 
the age of caponizing before they are large enough to withstand the opera- 
tion and even when successfully caponized they do not attain the weight 
demanded in the markets. 

THE OPERATION. 

The cockerels for the operation should be caught up and confined with- 
out food for twenty-four hours before the time of the operation. This empties 
the bowels and causes them to be much less in the way. If the day set proves 

dark or cloudy, postpone operations for a 
day. Bright sunlight is absolutely essen- 
tial to enable the operator to see the in- 
terior of the fowl and the danger of any 
germ infection is much less on a bright, 
sunny day than on a dark, cloudy one. 

If the day proves bright and clear get 
out your instruments and table and ar- 
range them so as to be handy and catch 
your first fowl. Place the bird on the table 
on its side and place the cords for holding 
the wings and legs securely in position. 
Locate the last two ribs by feeling with the fingers and locate the place 
pretty well up towards the back as shown by the dotted lines in Figure 20. 




Figure 20. Dotted Line Shows Point 

where Incision Should be Made 

when Caponizing. 



ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 437 

Pull out any feathers that are in the way and wet the surrounding ones and 
paste them to one side. Pull the loose skin to one side away from the point 
for the incision. Now take the knife for the initial incision, hold the blade 
upright and stick the point between the ribs and through the flesh and then 
pull it down, keeping it between the ribs all the time until you have an in- 
cision about one inch long. Care must be taken not to thrust the knife in 
so far as to endanger the bowels. Take the spring spreaders and compress 
them, then insert them in the cut and release them, making sure that they 
are firmly fixed so that they will not fly out at some critical moment. You 
can now see a thin filmy membrane covering the intestines. This must be 
torn away with the hook, care being taken not to injure the intestines. Now 
if the incision has been made in the right place the testicles can be seen almost 
directly under the opening, being fastened up close to the back. The mak- 
ing of the incision is the real test of the success of the operation ; when it is 
made in the right place the testicles can easily be seen but when it is made 
too far down or too far forward it is very difficult if not impossible to locate 
them and proportionately harder to remove' them. 

When the testicle is seen take the canula (if your set of instruments 
includes it), adjust the wire loop and insert the loop carrying end into the 
incision and slip the loop around the testicle onto the attacking cord. Now 
tighten the loop by drawing on the ends of the wire projecting from the free 
end of the tube. Sometimes the cord can be severed by merely pulling on 
the wires, but this is not often the case. Do not try to break the cord by 
pulling wath the canula, but twist it slowly from side to side, and after 
several motions it will come loose and may be removed. If it should fall 
from the canula when severed remove it with the forceps. If your capon- 
izing set includes the slotted scoop instead of the canula the method of pro- 
cedure is just the same except as to the actual removing of the testicles. 
With the scoop the testicle is caught in the scoop so as to catch the cord in 
the slot. If the edges of the slot are well sharpened they will sever the cord 
and the testicle will be free in the scoop. If, however, the scoop slots are 
not sharp it will require some twisting the same as with the canula before 
the testicle will be loose. To pull on the testicle in an effort to break the 
cord is a dangerous practice as the cord will pull loose at the back, fre- 
quently rupturing a blood vessel and causing the fowl to bleed to death. 



438 ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 

The operation given thus far is for the removal of one testicle from each 
side, requiring two incisions to caponize one fowl. After having removed one 
testicle as above detailed it is only necessary to turn the bird over and re- 
peat the operation on the other side. Many operators, however, remove both 
testicles from one side, removing the lower one first. This is a slightly more 
difficult operation than the former, but as it requires only one incision is 
easier on the fowl. However, the common practice even among experts is 
to make two incisions. The simplicity of the operation by this method more 
than compensates for any advantages that may be possessed by the one 
incision operation. 

If at any time any blood is spilled in the abdominal cavity it should be 
absorbed by bits of sponge first wet in water containing some antiseptic, such 
as carbolic acid in weak solution. 

After having removed the testicles make sure that there are no particles 
of any kind in the cavity; if such are seen remove them with the forceps; 
then remove the spring spreaders from the incision and. permit the skin to 
slip over it as it will do if it has been properly pulled aside before making 
the incision. The capon should be put in a quiet place for a few days and 
should be given food and water immediately. He will eat greedily from the 
long fast that preceded the operation. In a few days he may be released 
and should be treated as any other growing chicken. Sometimes shortly 
after the operation wind puffs will develop, which give the fowl a grotesque 
appearance or may even affect the gait of the fowl by expanding between 
the legs. These are caused by the presence of air under the skin and are 
rarely serious and may be relieved by making a pin hole perforation of the 
skin to permit of the escape of the air. 

SLIPS. 

Slips are the result of an incomplete operation where the testicles have 
not been completely removed. If the least portion is left it grows and al- 
though the fowl never has any value as a breeder he causes almost as much 
trouble about the yards as an uncaponized cockerel and is of as little value 
when sold. Slips are avoided by carefulness in the operation. Make sure 
that the entire testicle is removed .and you will have no slips. 



HEALTH AND DISEASfe. 



439 



MARKETING. 

In localities where collectors make frequent trips and are willing to pay 
reasonable prices it will undoubtedly prove best for the farmer to sell his 
capons alive, thus escaping the responsibilities of dressing and shipping. It 
is not always possible to sell alive, however, as when one desires to sell to 
private or retail trade. Dry picking is the favored method for capons and 




Figure 21. Capons as They Appear Dressed for Market. 

in picking the feathers are left on the head and neck, on the wings from the 
elbow out and half way up the legs. The large stiff feathers of the tail are 
also left. This style of picking is considered characteristic of the capon and 
to send them to the market picked in any other manner would cause them to 
be confused with soft roasters or even hens. 



HEALTH AND DISEASE. 

Health and vigor are of paramount importance in breeding stock. Always 
select all birds for the breeding pens with this as the first requirement. 
Birds that are strong, well matured and free from any suggestion of phy?.' 



440 SOME CAUSES OF DISEASE. 

eal weakness or disease will when used as breeders do much to keep up the 
general standard of health in the flock. The first evidences of disease in a 
flock are always among the weak and anemic members. Their constitutions 
do not enable them to ward off contagion and when through their own weak- 
ness they permit disease to lodge in the flock soon the stronger members are 
affected by the contagion thus brought into their midst and the whole flock 
is jeopardized. Vigor and health in a fowl are evidenced by a clean, bright 
plumage, an active disposition, a bright red comb, and a clear eye, and in the 
males by gallantry to the other sex and a rather pugnacious tendency to- 
wards their own. 

No matter how vigorous and robust a bird may appear do not use it 
for breeding purposes if it has ever been seriously sick of any disease. Cured 
birds possess a susceptibility to disease that may result in new contractions 
and are not likely to show as breeders the same good results as birds never 
affected by disease. 

SOME CAUSES OF DISEASE. 

Many of the commoner diseases that affect poultry can be traced directly 
to improper care, poor food, filthy or ill-ventilated quarters or to the pres- 
ence of vermin. Feeding in dirty troughs or litter, watering in vessels tainted 
or polluted force the fowls to take their food and drink from sources that 
may be contaminated with the germs of almost any infectious or contagious 
disease. The remedy for this is strict cleanliness about all food and water 
vessels. Sour, fermented grains or putrid meat food invariably cause some 
serious disturbances of the digestive organs. Since the very discovery of germ 
association with disease it has been known that the breeding places of these 
agents of death are in filth and manure. To permit houses and roosts to become 
foul with droppings is but to extend an invitation to disease. Scarcely less^ 
important than cleanliness is ventilation ; just as the roosts and floors of the 
poultry house become filthy when droppings and soiled litter are not removed 
so does the air become polluted and devitalized when it remains for hours 
unchanged. Poultrymen of authority say that no step in poultry rearing 
progress has done so much for the prevention of disease as the adoption of 
the open front and curtain front poultry houses. Lice and mites will take 
control of any poultry house if permitted. The constant irritation to which 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 441 

they subject the fowls keep them in a continual condition of nervousness that 
exhausts their vitality, and the blood-sucMng mites still further add to the 
debility of their victims by nocturnal, vampire-like habits. When thus weak- 
ened the poor fowl is open to any attacks that may be made upon him by 
the germs of disease. 

Sunshine is one of the best preventatives of disease; before the rays of a 
bright sun the disease germs tiee to more secluded places. It is for this 
reason that it is advisable to give the poultry house a southern exposure if 
it can possibly be done and the windows should be set so that the low hung 
winter sun can penetrate clear to the back walls of the house. Moreover, 
sunshine aids in keeping the poultry house dry. Dampness in the poultry 
house must not be tolerated as good results can not be obtained under such 
conditions. By locating the poultry house on high, dry ground surface, 
dampness will be prevented and by providing proper ventilation the sweating 
of the wall and ceiling, which sometimes drips onto the floor, wetting the 
litter to a serious extent, will be prevented. 

From the day of his first meal until he meets the axe the chicken should 
be made to hustle for his living. Under natural conditions he had to do it 
and Nature has so constituted him that he cannot attain his fullest physical 
development without exercise. Fowls must not be allowed to mope about. 
When confined they should be kept busy scratching in the litter of the house 
and when weather permits they should be allowed the exercise of the range. 
Their health will be all the better for it. 

COLDS. 

Fowls are subject to colds just as are human beings and the colds bf 
themselves are not serious ailments. Even the most robust birds will during 
blustery winter weather contract small colds' from which they frequently 
recover without any medical aid. The danger of colds is not in the cold 
itself but by irritating the membranes of the throat, mouth and eyes it makes 
these parts sore and tender so that the germs of some of the many diseases 
that affect these parts may find a lodging place prepared for them. Draughty 
houses and poor ventilation are common causes of colds. When birds on 
range are first housed in the fall, colds are very likely to develop because 



442 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

the birds, being used to roost in the open, sweat in the house and when liber- 
ated in the morning, cool too quickly and colds result. 

AVhen first transferring the fowls to winter quarters do not close the 
houses too tightly but at the same time avoid any draught that would strike 
the roosting birds. If any bird is noticed with a cold remove it from the 
flock and administer night and morning a one-grain pill of quinine. This will 
effect a cure in two or three days in most cases. If a slight watery discharge 
is found in the eye or nostrils clean them with dioxogen. There is always a 
cause for colds. Locate and remove it. 

ROUP. 

In its early stages roup is likely to be confounded with colds or other 
ailments. It is one of the commonest of poultry diseases and may be found 
at any season of the year although it is most common during the early fall 
months. Young and immature birds are particularly liable to contract roup 
at this time. Roup can be distinguished by a peculiar odor that once smelled 
will never be forgotten. This odor serves with the experienced pouJtryman 
to differentiate roup from any other disease affecting poultry. 

Roup begins frequently with a cold and the first symptoms are much 
the same. At first a thin watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils will 
be seen. This thickens and soon becomes yellow and develops into a hard 
cheesy growth, which will in even a few days destroy the sight of the eye. 
As these cheesy growths occur in the mouth and throat also the bird breathes 
with difficulty and at intervals will endeavor to throw the growth from the 
mouth. Roup in the early stages can be cured without great difficulty, but 
when a case is well developed the 'best course is to kill the bird. Even 
when a complete cure is apparently effected the fowl will always possess an 
added susceptibility to the disease and will acquire it again on slight ex- 
posure. 

Sick birds should be removed from the flock at once. If the case is one 
where killing is advisable, do so at once and burn the body immediately. A 
thorough disinfection of the premises is next in order and a small pinch of 
potassium permanganate crystals put in the water (just enough to give it a 
slight reddish color) will serve as a preventative for the flock. Put the sick 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 443 

birds in comfortable quarters and begin treatment at once. Remove the 
yellow scabs in the mouth and throat and do not be alarmed if they bleed 
rather freely. Apply dioxogen until it ceases to foam and then apply pure 
creolin with a swab. If the scabs reappear remove them and repeat the 
treatment. Boracic acid applied to the nostrils and throat twice daily is 
an excellent remedy. 

A mixture of nine parts of chlorate of potash and one part potassium 
permanganate and placed in the drinking water (one teaspoonful to a gal- 
lon) is a much recommended remedy. 

The birds under treatment should have the best of care and disinfection 
should never be neglected. If after a few days of treatment the bird does 
not show improvement it should be killed and burned. 



GAPES. 

This is one of the most exasperating and serious of all the ailments of 
poultry. Gapes is caused by a small parasitic worm, Synganas Trachealis, 
which lodges itself in the windpipe of the fowl. While gapes doubtless 
attacks chickens of all ages it is seldom noticed save in young chicks. The 
older birds are able to withstand the ravages of these parasites without 
showing the symptoms that call attention to the presence of the gape worms. 
Young chicks, however, quickly show the effect of the presence of the worms 
and their condition soon becomes critical. The severity of the affection is 
dependent upon the number of worms that lodge themselves in any individual 
bird's windpipe. The worms weaken the bird by sucking the blood from 
it and their presence in the windpipe is a continual source of keen irritation. 
When present in large numbers the worms almost completely block the wind- 
pipe and cause the bird to gape for breath — hence the name given this af- 
fliction. 

Just what is the origin of the gape worm is a disputed question but many 
incline to the belief that they are carried by earth worms. As they multi- 
ply rapidly if the soil is once infested with them opportunities for the spread 
of the trouble increase rapidly. 

When gapes makes its appearance isolate all affected chicks at once. 



444 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

Lime dust is recommended as a simple and sure material for forcing the 
fowls to expel the worms. A box is made with a covering of burlap or 
coai'&ely woven cloth, air slaked lime is then sifted over the chicks and being 
inhaled into the air passages, irritates them and causes the chick to cough 
and sneeze violently, thus dislodging the worms and expelling them. As 
this method is slightly painful and if prolonged may be fatal to the chicks 
it must be done carefully and the chicks must not be made to remain in the 
box too long. 

The worms may be extracted by using wire or horse hair extractors 
which are inserted in the windpipe, twisted so as to scrape the worms from 
the walls and then withdrawn. Persons inexperienced in the operation of 
removing worms in this manner may kill some before they acquire the ability 
of inserting the wire or hair loop into the windpipe properly. But as the 
accomplishment is a valuable one to acquire it is worth the lives of a few 
chicks to learn. 

Camphor is recommmended for ridding chicks of gape worms and the 
method of administering is easy. Take each chick and drop down its throat 
a piece of camphor about the size of a grain of wheat. This is said to be 
a satisfactory cure. 

To rid the premises of gape worms is a difficult undertaking. The most 
satisfactory methods are to spray the ground in the runs with a strong dis- 
infectant and to scatter air slaked lime. Wliile this will no doubt lessen 
the evil to some extent it will not completely eliminate it as the surface to be 
covered, particularly where the chicks have free range, renders it imprac- 
ticable to do a thorough job. 

CHOLERA. 

Cholera is a most disastrous disease that breaks out sometimes almost 
without warning and decimates a flock before the owner has had time to 
collect his faculties. The course of this disease is very rapid. The infection 
is generally acquired through water or food, although at times it seems to 
have been transmitted when no tangible connection could be traced to a 
source of infection, encouraging the belief that the germs may be carried 
considerable distances through the air. Cholera is one of the most virulent 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 445 

of contagious diseases and the eating of any food stuffs that have come in 
contact with affected conditions will almost invariably result in the ac- 
quiring of the disease. If well fowls eat the flesh of affected birds they will 
almost surely be affected themselves and it is well to reiterate here what has 
already been said, that dead fowls, no matter what the cause of their death, 
should always be burned or buried deep. 

A feverish condition and loss of appetite is one of the first symptoms of 
cholera. A slight diarrhoea will appear at the same time. The bird is 
lifeless and mopes about with ruffled feathers and a general appearance of 
ill feeling. Owing to the high fever the fowl will be very thirsty. The 
comb will lose itvS color and will after the disease is well developed become 
purple or almost black. The discharge from the bowels grows thinner and 
with the development of the disease becomes streaked with blood. 

The greenish or yellowish diarrhoea which attends this disease is one of 
the distinguishing symptoms. This with the high fever and the dark color 
of the comb mil enable one to identify the complaint. 

As cholera develops rapidly and soon has its victim beyond the reach 
of help any means taken to stop it must be taken promptly. As a matter 
of fact, however, the best method of getting rid of cholera is to kill all in- 
fected birds and start a rigid and thorough disinfection of all poultry houses 
and yards and scald out all food and water vessels. If the source of the 
contagion can be located spare no pains to cut it off. If the food supply is 
suspected, use no more of it. 

Birds affected with cholera weaken rapidly and if any treatment is un- 
dertaken toward curing the affected ones the first course is to induce them 
to eat some nourishing food. As they have lost all appetite they can only be 
fed by hand and in such case bread soaked in beef juice or the beef juice 
itself can be pushed or poured down the throat. When the disease is first 
detected give the afflicted fowl a spoonful of castor oil and follow in a few 
minutes with a tablet containing 1-200 of a grain of arsenate of copper. Re- 
peat the arsenate of copper every three or four hours and administer a 1-1000 
grain tablet of corrosive sublimate every three hours. Improvement should 
be evident in three or four days, and when the bird recovers its appetite, 
will be rapid. 



446 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

WHITE DIARRHOEA. 

The best authorities do not hesitate to class White Diarrhoea as a 
parasitic disease, yet there seems no question that bowel troubles so closely 
resembling White Diarrhoea as to offer the layman no means of discrim- 
ination are caused by accidents of hatching or carelessness in care and feed- 
ing that do not indicate any infection either from external sources or in- 
herent. Chicks hatched in incubators where the temperature is not kept 
under control or where some untoward occurrence is allowed to happen 
during the period of incubation will, while hatching out in such numbers 
as to make the operator think that the incidents above referred to did no 
harm, develop an epidemic of bowel trouble and become pasted up just 
as chicks suffering from White Diarrhoea. It is evident that chicks so 
affected owe their misfortune to the vicissitudes they have undergone while in 
the embryo stage and not to any inherent infection, because other chicks of 
the same parentage hatched either by hens or incubators and not subjected 
to the same trying conditions while still in the egg will show no trace of the 
disease. 

The intestinal parasite responsible for White Diarrhoea has been isolated 
and is called Coccidium tenellium. Regardless of whether the ailments classed 
as White Diarrhoea are of parasitic origin or not the fact remains that 
chicks subjected to any extreme conditions while in the embryo stage or 
after will develop in many instances a serious bowel complaint. There seems 
no doubt that in some instances or at least in some forms of bowel trouble 
the affection is inherited and such being the case it is necessary to go back 
to the parent stock before preventative remedies can be applied. If you 
know that your methods of incubation are at fault or that you have been 
subjecting the chicks to extremes of heat or cold in the brooder the method 
of stopping this evil is evident. If, however, it seems that conditions are all 
that could be required for health and vigor in the young chicks then sus- 
picion should be turned to the parent stock. Obviously the method of treat- 
ment would be to discard the breeding stock or give them a thorough clean- 
ing out by using strong purgatives. If you are loth to let your breeding 
birds go, administer epsom salts in the drinking water every week or so 
during the breeding season. A mild disinfectant placed in the drinking 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 447 

water would have its effect in destroying these parasites. As the droppings 
will contain the minute worms they should be removed quickly and often. 

LIMBER NECK. 

Limber neck is caused by ptomaine poisoning of which the source will 
almost invariably be found to be decayed or poisoned meats, usually dead 
fowls which the others have been eating after they have reached an advanced 
stage of decay. Dead fowls on which maggots are working present a great 
menace in this regard, as the fowls will devour the maggots and they in 
turn are filled with the poisoned flesh of the decayed fowl. Beef scrap which 
has been permitted to become wet or mouldy wall also cause this disease when 
eaten by the fowls. 

The name limber neck indicates thoroughly the symptoms of this trouble. 
The fowl will stand with its head hanging almost to the floor as if it had 
no control of the neck at all as indeed it hasn't. Sometimes the neck will 
be twisted back over the shoulders of the fowl and the peculiar positions of 
the neck are due to a more or less complete paralysis of its muscles. 

When a bird is found suffering from limber neck immediately search the 
premises until you find the source of the trouble and get it out of the way. 
Then administer to the fowl a small dose of turpentine and sweet oil. About 
thirty minutes later give the fowl all the sweet milk you can induce it to 
take. It will be necessary to support the head of the fowl and administer 
these remedies, as the fowl can not eat unassisted. The object is to get the 
poison out of the bird's system or to counteract it and when this is done 
recovery will be a matter of hours. Limber neck is not contagious but 
usually several cases develop simultaneously because the fowls all have been 
to the same source of acquisition. 

BUMBLE FOOT AND CORNS. 

A bird suffering from bumble foot will show its affliction by its gait. 
It will hobble on one foot and when standing will lift the sore foot from the 
ground. An examination will reveal that the bottom of the foot is sore and 
swollen. The cause of the trouble is injured or bruised tissues caused most 
frequently by jumping from high roosts onto hard floors. As the swelling 



us DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

occurs imderneath the tough skin ou the bottom of the loot the pus or matter 
forming cannot tind an outlet and the injury becomes more and more pain- 
ful until the fowl cannot bear its weight on the injured member. Where the 
swelling is large it is evident that there has been a considerable formation 
of pus and the remedy is to open up the foot with a sharp knife and let the 
pus out. Then wash the wound with lukewarm water and apply dioxogen 
to the wound until it ceases to foam and then wash again with a solution 
containing a small portion of carbolic acid. The wound should be tied up 
to prevent infection and should be inspected from time to time and dressed 
Math some good healing salve. 

Again when fowls show symptoms similar to those of bumble foot they 
will when examined be found to have huge corns on the bottom of the feet. 
By working around the edges of these with a dull knife they can be lifted 
out, leaving a hole large enough sometimes for the insertion of the end of the 
thumb. The flesh will be found very tender under the corn and if bandaged 
for a few days will save the fowl much pain. These corns like the corns that 
affect man are likely to return but their removal is not difficult. Bruises of 
the feet are the causes of corns and like bumble foot are caused by high 
roosts located over hard floors. 

SCALY LEG. 

Scaly leg is a scurfy, scaly condition of the legs caused by the presence 
of a minute parasite which by accumulating under the scales of the legs 
raises them from the skin and fills in the interstices with a whitish lime-like 
appearing growth that sometimes adds an inch or more to the circumference 
of the leg. While the disease does not seem to be painful to the fowl and is 
not fatal it is very unsightly and yields readily to treatment. 

If -the legs are soaked for some time in warm water much of the loose 
limey growth can be taken from between the scales with a hair pin or tooth 
pick. When the growth is heavy it should not be removed all at one time 
as to do so will cause bleeding. After the first soaking and the removal of 
such particles as come ofi" easily rub the legs freely with a mixture of lard 
and coal oil. Do not make the amount of coal oil too great and do not get 
it on the skin of the thighs. Now release the bird for one day and on the 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 449 

next take liim up again aud you will find that much more of the growth 
under the scales is ready for removal. Repeat tliis process several times and 
all of the foreign growth will be removed. It will require a few days after 
all particles have been removed for the leg to again acquire its natural smooth 
appearance, as the growth under the scales has caused them to stand out 
almost at right angles to the legs, but they will soon return to their natural 
condition. Infection is likely to recur but if watched one application of lard 
and coal oil will stop it. 

CROP BOUND. 

Dry grass, straw, coarse particles of any kind and even sometimes whole 
corn will so pack the crop of a fowl that the outlet is closed and the con- 
tents of the crop cannot pass on their way to the digestive tracts. The plain- 
est evidence of this condition is, of course, the distended crop. A slight dis- 
charge, thin and watery, will soon develop and the ])ird will appear listless 
"When the bird is handled an offensive liquid will run from the mouth. 

Give the bird a dose of castor oil, then with the fingers manipulate the 
crop, holding tlie head of the fowl downward. Try to work the contents of 
the crop out through the mouth. Do not try to do this in a hurry, but proceed 
slowly and work the particles out one at a time. If successful in emptying 
the crop in this manner give the bird a light feed of soft food and if not too 
weak he can be returned to his regular quarters. 

If, however, it is found impossible to remove the contents of the crop 
by manipulation it will be necessary to open the crop and remove the con- 
tents. First pluck the feathers from over the crop at the point where the 
incision is to be made and with a sharp knife cut through the skin, but do 
not cut at this incision the flesh. Then pull the skin with the incision over 
an inch or more from its usual position and working through the incision 
in the skin make through the fleshy wall of the crop an incision about one 
inch long. Now begin to emptj^ the crop. It it is filled with grain or fine 
particles you can remove them easily ; if, however, the contents are grass or 
straw, it will be necessary to use some instrument with which to pull the 
material out. After having thoroughly emptied the crop wash it out and 
make sure that you are leaving no obstruction in the outlet. Sew up the wall 
of the crop first with silk thread. Do not sew the flesh and skin together or 



450 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

at the same time. Now if you have made the incision right in opening the 
crop the skin will slip back to its natural place and the incision made in the 
flesh of the crop and the one made in the skin will not coincide. 

Feed the bird sparingly for a week or more on soft or liquid food. If 
it has been crop bound for a considerable time it will be very weak, for it 
has had virtually nothing to eat all the time it was affected. It will recover 
strength rapidly however and in a week or ten days should be sufficiently 
recovered to be returned to the run. ' 

EGG BOUND. 

This trouble is confined for the most part to old hens of the heavier 
breeds. It seems to be caused by an over fat condition of the hen. 

A hen affected with this trouble will show signs of her distress by her 
crouching attitude and lowered wings and will seek the nest frequently and 
will strain to discharge the egg. 

Often the hen requires no more assistance than the lubrication of the 
oviduct with sweet or castor oil. If this is unsuccessful hold the bird with 
the vent over a vessel of boiling water and let the steam strike against the 
vent. This will induce a relaxation of the muscles that will sometimes per- 
mit the passage of the egg. 

If the egg can be touched it can be broken and the contents removed, 
but this is a last resort as a broken egg in the oviduct is sometimes as 
serious a matter as a whole one. 

If the walls of the oviduct are torn the fowl might as well be killed, as 
death is inevitable. 

LICE AND MITES. 

These are the poultryman's worst enemies. They require his constant 
vigilance lest they absorb his profits and destroy all hopes of a successful 
undertaking. 

Lice are not blood suckers. They live on the fowl among the feathers 
and are armed with claws and keep the fowl in a constant state oi irritation 
and this constant irritation keeps the fowl in a worried, nervous condition 
that prevents well-being and interferes with growth or egg production. 



DISEASES OF POULTRY. 451 

Mites are the blood suckers. They are nocturnal in their habits, hiding 
among the cracks and crevices of the roosts and houses during the day and 
coming forth at night to find their victims and fix themselves on him for 
a night's feast. Mites will be found by a careful inspection of the roosts. 
Normally the mite is gray in color but when filled with the blood of its 
victim it is red. They will be found frequently in numbers so great as to 
look like dust among which those that are filled with blood will stand out 
in tiny red particles. Mites since they infest the houses are more easily dealt with 
than lice. If every crack and cranny of the poultry house and dropping 
board is thoroughly sprayed with a liquid lice killer or strong disinfectant 
solution, every mite can be killed. Some lice will be killed by this process 
also as the odor of the disinfectant will penetrate the feathers of the hen 
when on the roost. However, to thoroughly rid the fowls of lice, individual 
treatment is advisable and this consists of dusting them with a strong louse 
powder. For this purpose, time and labor can be saved by constructing a 
cloth covered cylinder eighteen or more inches in diameter and two feet or 
more in length with an opening with a draw string sufficiently large for 
putting fowls into and for removing them from the cylinder. Then by- 
placing half a pound of louse powder in the cylinder and two or three fowls 
the machine is ready. Rotate the cylinder rather rapidly for ten or fifteen 
seconds. As it is turned the fowls within lose their footing and are turned 
over and over with feathers loose and the louse powder pouring over them. 
This method of administering louse powder is more rapid than any other 
method, is also more thorough and more economical. The soft canvas walls 
prevent any injury to the fowls and they never show any evidence of having 
gotten the powder in their eyes. 

Do not think that one application of disinfecting spray will long keep 
the poultry house free from mites or that one administering of louse powder 
will give the birds long relief from the lice. The work must be done over 
and over again. No matter how carefully the work may be done always a 
few vermin are left and these soon multiply and the fight must be kept up. 

Young chicks are frequently infested with lice which fasten the*nselves 
on the head. Whenever the chicks appear dumpy or out of condition look 
first for these lice. Greasing the heads liberally with lard will destroy the 
pests. 



452 DISEASES OF POULTRY. 

Sometimes the feathers of the fowls will show ragged witli edges cut 
and the skin bare in places. This is the work of the depluming mite. Treat 
the injured sections with carbolated vaseline and keep the houses thoroughly 
disinfected and the fowls well dusted with louse powder and you will be rid 
of these as well as other lice and mites. 



BOOKS ON POULTKY AND PIGEONS 453 



PUBLICATIONS ON POULTRY AND PIGEONS 

American Breeds op Fowls: I. The Plymouth Rock. Bulletin 29, Bureau of Animal 

Husbandry. United States Dejmrtment of Agriculture $0 15 

American Standard of Perfection, The. Supplied by Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 

Gives detailed descriptious of the various breeds, and sets forth also the points of excellence 
for the show-room. 

Broilers for Profit. By M. K. Beyer. /. t>. Johmon tk Co., Boston, Mass 50 

Designed for the beginner in artificial hatching. 

Business Hen, The. By J. Collingwood. Rural Publishing Co., N. Y 75 

Capons for Profit. By T. Greiner. Fai'm and Fireside, Springfield, Ohio 30 

Chickens, Apoplectiform Septicemia in. Bulletin 86. Bureau of Animal Industry. 

United States Department of Agriculture 10 

Chickens, Gapes of. By H. Carman. Bulletins 70 and 74. Kentucky Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, Lexington, Ky 

Chickens, Standard Varieties of. Farmers' Bulletin 51. United States Department 

of Agriculture ....... 

Diseases of Poultry, The. By D. E. Salmon. Orange Judd Co., NY 50 

Duck Culture. By James Rankin. James Rankin, South Easton, Mass 25 

Mr. Rankin speaks with the authority of a poultryman who hatches and markets 10,000 
ducklings annually. 

Ducks AND Geese. Farmers' Bulletin 64. U nited States Department of Agriculture . 

Eggs and Their Uses as Food. Farmers' Bulletin 128. United States Department of 

Agriculture 

Farm Poultry. By George C. Watson. The Macmillan Co., N. Y 1.25 

Fowls : Care and Feeding. Farmers' Bulletin 41. United States Department of Agri- 
culture 

Fowls, Roup in. By J. B. Barlow. Report, Rhode Island Agricidtural Experiment Sta- 
tion, Kingston, R. I. (1898) 

Investigations Concerning Infectious Diseases Among Poultry. Bulletin 8, Bureau 

of Animal Industry. United States Dejyartment of Agriculture 15 

Pigeon Keeper, Practical. By Lewis Wright. Cassell db Co., 'N. Y 1.50 

Pigeon Queries. By E. E. Quick. Orange Judd Co., l!i. Y 25 

Poultry, Profits in. Orange Judd C7o., N. Y 1.00 

Poultry: The Illustrated Book of. By Lewis Wright. Cassell & Co., N. Y. . 5.00 

An English publication, profusely illustrated. 
Poultry Appliances and Handicraft. Compiled by G. B. Fiske. Orange Judd Co., 

NY. . 50 



454 BOOKS ON POULTRY AND PIGEONS 

Poultry Architecture. Compiled by G. B. Fiske. Orarajc Judd Co., N. Y. . . . $0.50 

Poultry Book, Revised Complete. Farm and Fireside, Springfield, Ohio 50 

Poultry Culture. By I. K. Felch. American Agriculturist, N. Y 1.50 

Includes matter on show-room judging. 

Poultry Culture, Practical. Eintomist Publishing Co 5.00 

Poultry Keeper, Practical. By L. Wright. Cassell <& Co., "N. Y 2.00 

-' • • An English work. 

Poultry Keeper, Profitable. By Stephen Beal. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.25 

An English work. 

Poultry Raising, Five Hundred Questions and Answers in. Practical Poultryman, 

Whitney's Point, N. Y 25 

Poultry Raising on the Farm. Farmers' Bulletin 141. United States Department of 

Agriculture 

Poultry Record Book, Money in. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 25 

Turkeys and How to Grow Them. By Herbert Myrick. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 
Turkeys, Black-head of. By S. Cushman. Report, Rhode Island Agricultural Experi- 

ment Station, Kingston, R. I. (1894) 



29 



/CALENDAR FOR 1902-1952 

1 , And for 150 Years Previous to 1902, 
V-<f Specially Arranged for Ready Reference. 




■d 
?? 

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O 

w 


■v 
m 
W 

o 
< 


CO 

■a 
S 

S 

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3 
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CO 

1-5 


! 


cS 

•a 

i 

Ph 

CO 


o 


'in 
o 

o 


■a 


1902 
1800 

irss 


1913 

1817 
1766 


1919 
1823 
1777 


1930 

1834 
1783 


1941 
1845 
1794 


1947 
1851 
1800 


1862 


1873 


1879 


1890 


.... 


3 


6 


6 


2 


4 


7 


2 


5 


1 


3 


6 


1 


1903 
IHOI 
1761 


1914 
1807 
1767 


1925 

1818 
1778 


1931 
1829 
1789 


1942 
1795 


i846 


1857 


1863 


1874 


1885 


1891 


4 


7 


7 


3 


5 


1 


3 


6 


2 


4 


7 


2 


1904 1 1932 1 --- 1 1808 1 1836 1864 | 1892 | --. | 1768 | 1796 1 -.-. 


5ll|2j5|7l3|5|l|4l6j2|4 | 


1905 
1809 
1758 


1911 
1815 
1769 


1922 
1826 
1775 


1933 1939 
1837 1843 
1786 1797 


1950 
1854 


1865 


1871 


1882 


1893 


1899 


7 


3 


3 


6 


1 


4 


6 


2 


5 


7 


3 


5 


190(5 
IKIO 
1753 


1917 
1821 
1759 


1923 

1827 
1770 


1934 

I8;i8 

1781 


1945 
1849 

1787 


1951 
1855 
1798 


1866' 


1877 


1883 


1894 


1900 


1 


4 


4 


7 


2 


5 


7 


3 


6 


1 


4 


6 


1901 
1805 
1754 


1907 
1811 
1765 


1918 
1822 
1771 


1929 

isas 

1782 


1935 
1839 
1793 


1946 
1850 
1799 


1861 


1867 


1878 


1889 


1895 


2 


5 


5 


1 


3 


6 


1 


4 


7 


2 


5 


7 


1908 1 1936 1 ---- 1 .--- 1 1812 1 1840 1 1868 1 1896 1 --.. | -... | 1772 


3I6I7I3I5I1I3I6I2I4I7I2 | 


1909 
1802 
1762 


1915 
1813 
1773 


1926 
1819 
1779 


1937 
1830 
1790 


1943 
1841 


1847 


1858 


1869 


1875 


1886 


1897 


5 


1 


1 


4 


6 


3 


4 


7 


3 


5 


1 


3 


1910 
1803 
1757 


1921 
1814 
1763 


1927 
1825 
1774 


1938 
1831 
1785 


1949 
1842 
1791 


1853 


1859 


1870 


]88i 


1887 


1898 


6 


2 


3 


5 


7 


3 


5 1 


4 


6 


2 


4 


1912 1 1940 1 -.-- 1 ---- 1816 1 1844 1 1872 | -... | .... | .... | 1776 


1 1 4 1 5 1 1 1 3 1 6 1 1 1 4 ! 7 1 2 1 5 ! 7 


1916 1 1944 ! ---. 1 .... 1 1820 1 1848 | 1876 | .... | .... | .... | 1780 


6I2I3I6I1I4I6I2I5I7I3I5 


1920 1 1948 1 - 1 ---. 1 1824 1852 | 1880 | .... 1 .-.. | 1756 1784 


4I7I1I4I6I2I4I7I3I5I1I3 


1924 1952 1 1828 1856 | 1884 1 --.. 1 -.. | 1760 1788 


2I5|6J2|4I7|2I5I1|3|6|1 


1928 


... .... .--- 1804 1832 1860 


1888 


.--- 1764 1 1792 


7 


3 4 


7 2 5 7 3 6 


14 6 1 



Leap Years iu foregoing table are in bold-face type 





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02 S 




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02 




03 




SUN. 
MON. 
TUBS. 


Q 


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1 


03 


1 


.. 1 1 2 


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T1 


5 




3 


.. 1 .. 


1 


3 3 


"4 


~5" 


3 


.. 1 .. 1 .. 


"i 2 


3 -r 


7 


8 1 9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


6 1 7 1 8 


9 1 10 1 11 


12 


5 1 6 1 7 


8 1 9 


10 ! 11 


14 


15 1 16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


13 1 14 1 15 


16 1 17 1 18 


19 


12 1 13 1 14 


15 1 16 


17 1 18 


21 


22 1 23 


24 


25 


26 


37 


20 1 31 1 33 


33 1 34 1 25 


36 


19 1 30 1 21 


22 1 23 


34 1 35 


28 


29 1 30 


31 




.- 




27 1 28 29 


30 1 31 1 .. 




26 1 27 1 38 


39 1 30 


31 1 .. 


4 


.. .. 1 .. 1 .. 1 1 


3 


3 


5 


.. 1 ._ .. 


-- 1 -- 1 1 


3 


6 


-- 1 -. 1 .. 


.. ! .- 


-- 1 1 


4 


5 1 6 




8 


9 


10 


3 1 4 1 5 


6 1 7 1 8 


9 


3 1 3 1 4 


5 1 6 


7 1 8 


11 


12 1 13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


10 1 11 1 12 


13 1 14 1 15 


16 


9 1 10 1 11 


13 1 13 


14 1 15 


18 


19 1 20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


17 1 18 1 19 


30 1 31 1 32 


33 


16 1 17 1 18 


19 i 20 


31 1 23 


25 


26 1 27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


34 1 25 1 26 


27 1 28 1 29 


30 




33 1 24 1 25 


26 1 27 


38 39 


- - 1 - 1 - 1 - 


-- 




.31 1 .. 1 .. 


■- 1 -. 1 .. 




30 1 31 1 .. 


.. 1 .. 




7 


1 


S 1 3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


NOTE.- To find 
year fell or will fall 
niontli at the right, 
month will indicate 


on what day of the week any calendar day of any 
, find desired year in upper left-hand table and desired 
The reference figure opposite the year and under the 
the aDDroDriate monthlv calendar beneath. 


8 


9 1 10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 1 17 


18 


19 


20 


31 


22 


23 1 24 


25 


26 


27 


38 




29 


30 1 31 


.. 




- - 



























_J 



(455) 



Handy Rules and Useful Information 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



MEASURES OF LENGTH 



Linear Measure — 



League 
1 



Miles 
3 
1 



Furlongs 
34 



Rods (Poles or 

Perches) 

960 

330 

40 

1 



Yards 

= 5,480 

= -^1,760 

= ■ 230 

5i 

1 



Feet 

= 15,840 = 

= 5,380 = 

= 660 = 

Ui = 

= - S = 

1 = 



Surveyor's or Chain Measure — 



Mile 
1 



Chains 

80 

1 



Rods {Poles) 
330 
4 
1 



Links 

8,000 

100 

25 

1 



Inches 

190,080 

63,360 

7,930 

198 

36 

13 

Inches 
63,360 

792 

198 
7.92 



Occasional Measures — 3 inches = 1 palm ; 4 inches = 1 hand ; 9 inches = 1 span ; 2^ 
feet = 1 military pace ; 6 feet = 1 fathom ; 6,080.26 feet = 1 nautical mile, or knot ; 3 nau- 
tical miles = 1 league ; 60 nautical miles = 1 degree at the equator (69.168 statute miles) ; 
360 degrees = circumference of earth at equator ; 6,072 feet = 1 geographical mile. 



MEASURES OF SURFACE 



Square Measure — 






Square Mile Acres Square Rods 


Square Yards Square Feet 


Square Inches 


1 = 640 = 103,400 

1 = 160 

1 


= 3,697,600 = 27,878,400 = 

= 4,840 = 43,560 = 

30ir = 272i = 

1 = 9 = 

1 = 


4,014,489,600 

6,272,640 

39,204 

1,296 

144 


Surveyor's Surface Measure — 






Township Square Miles Acres 


Square Chains Square Rods 


Square Links 


1 = 36 = 33,040 

1 = 640 

1 


= 230,400 = 3,686,400 = 

= 6,400 = 103,400 = 

= 10 = 160 = 

1 = 16 = 

1 = 


2,304,000,000 

64,000,000 

100,000 

10,000 

625 



Occasional Measures — 1 circular inch (area of circle 1 inch in diameter) = 0.7854 square 
inch = 1,000,000 circular mills (area of circle .001 inch in diameter) ; 1 rood = 40 square 
poles or rods. 



(4561 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



457 



MEASURES OF VOLUME 

Cubic Measure — 

1,728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot. 
27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard. 

128 cubic feet = 1 cord of wood (a pile 4x4x8 feet). 
241 cubic feet = 1 perch of masonry (1 x li x 16i feet). 



Liquid Measure — 




^ 








Tun Pipes (Butts) Pu7icheo>is 


Hogsheads 


Tierces 


BUS. Gals. 


Quarts 


Pints Gills 


1 = 2 = 3 = 


4 = 


6 = 


8 = 252 = 


1,008 = 


2,016 = 8,064 


1 = u = 


2 = 


3 = 


4 = 126 = 


504 = 


1,008 = 4,032 


1 = 


u = 


2 = 


21 = 84 = 


336 = 


672 = 2,688 




1 = 


U =: 


2 = 63 = 


252 = 


504 = 2,016 






1 = 


li = 42 = 


168 = 


336 = 1,344 








1 = 31i= 


126 = 


252 = 1,008 






- 


1 = 


4 = 
1 = 


8 = 32 

2 = 8 


Apothecaries' Fluid Measure — 








1 = 4 


Gallon Pints 


Fluid Ounces 


Fluid Drams 


Minims {Drops) 


1 = 8 


128 


= 


1,024 


= 


61,440 


1 = 


16 


= 


128 


= 


7,680 


* 


1 


= 


8 


= 


480 


Dry Measure — 






1 


= 


60 


U. S. Struck Bushel 


Pecks 




Qua7'ts 




Pints 


1 = 


4 


= 


32 


= 


64 




1 


= 


8 


=: 


16 








1 


=: 


2 



The U. iS. heaped bushel is a cylinder 18i inches in diameter and 8 inches deep, heaped to a 
cone 6 inches high. It is equal approximately to H struck bushels. 



MEASURES OF WEIGHT 



Avoirdupois, or Commercial Weight — 

Net or Short Ion Hundrediceifjht Pounds 

1 = 20 = 

1 = 



2,000 

100 

1 



Ounces 
= '32,000 
= 1,600 
= 16 

1 
into 20 cwt. 



Drams 
= 512,000 
= 25,600 
= 256 

= 16 

of 112 lbs.. 



Grains 



7,000 
437.5 
The original "long ton" of 2,240 lbs., divided into 20 cwt. of 112 lbs., and these into 
4 quarters of 28 lbs., is still used. The hundredweight of 100 lbs. is also known as a cental, or- 
quintal. The metric ton contains 2,204.6 lbs. A stone is 14" lbs. 

Troy, or Jewelers' Weight — 

Pound Ounces 

1 = 12 = 

1 = 



PennyweigJits 
= 240 

= 20 

1 
The carat, used in weighing diamonds = 3.168 grains. 



Grains 
5,760 
480 
24 



458 



NUMBEES FOE EAPID CONVEESIONS 



Apothecaries* Weight — 

Pound Ounces Drams 


Scruples 




Qrains 


1 = 12 = 96 

1=8 = 
1 ^ 
The grain, in the three tables of weight, is identical. 


288 

' 24 

3 

1 


= ' 


5,760 

480 

60 

20 



CIRCULAR MEASURE 

Circumference Quadrants Signs Degrees Minutes Seconds 

1 = 4 = 12 = 360 = 21,600 = 1,296,000 

1 = 8 = 90 = 5,400 = 324,000 

1 = 30 = 1,800 = 108,000 

1 = 60 = 3,600 

1 = 60 

NUMBERS FOR RAPID CONVERSIONS 

Inasmuch as multiplication is easier than division, the following table of 
decimal multipliers will be found useful for rapid conversions. In case no high 
degree of accuracy is desired, the multiplier may be abridged by omitting one or 
more figures at the extreme riglit, adding 1 to the last figure of the decimal fraction 
remaining if tlie omitted figure is 5 or greater than 5. Thus, Pounds Avoirdupois 
multiplied by 0.00-454 equal Quintals, appioximately. 

Relations of Comnioii Weights ami Measures 

Feet. multiplied by 0.0001894 equal miles. 

Yards . " 0.0005682 " miles. 

Links " 0.2202 " yards. 

Yards... " 4.5454 " links. 

Links " 0.66 " feet. 

Feet .- ■• 1.515 •' links. 

Square Inches .- •• 0.00694 " square feet. 

Square Feet-. " 0.11111 " square yards. 

Square Yards... " 0.0002066 " acres. 

Acres •■ 0.4840 " square yards. 

Cubic Inches " 0.000466 " U. S. struck bushels. 

Cubic Inches •■ 0.004329 " U. S. gallons. 

CubicFeet_... " 7.4805 •' U. S. gallons. 

U. S. Struck Bushels " 2,150.42 " cubic inches. 

U. S. Gallons " 231.0 " cubic inches. 

U. S. Gallons •■ 0.13368 " cubic feet. 

Cubic Inches -. " 0.000364 " U. S. heaped bushels. 

U. S. Heaped Bushels . •• 2,747.7 " cubic inches 

Cubic feet of Water (at 62' Fahr.) " 62.355 " pounds avoirdupois. 

U. S. Gallons Water (at 62" Fahr.) " 8.3356 " pounds avoirdupois. 

Cubic Feet of Water (at 62" Fahr.) ^' 0.031177 " short tons. 

Diameter of Circle " 3.14159 " circumference. 

Circumference... . " 0.31831 " diameter. 

Pounds Avoirdupois " 0.0089285 " hundredweight (112 lbs.) 

Pounds Avoirdupois " 0.00044643 " long tons. 

Pounda Avoirdupois.. " 0.0005 " short tons. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



459 



Metric and Gonmion Equivalents 



Inches 


multiplied by 25.4001 equal millimeters. 


Millimeters 


" 0.08937 


inches. 


Inches... 


" 2.54001 


centimeters. 


Centimeters 


" 0.3937 


inches. 


Feet 


0.304801 


meters. 


Meters 


" 3.28083 


feet. 


Yards 


.;.... " 0.914402 


meters. 


Meters. .~ . 


. " 1.093611 


yards. 


Miles 


" 1.60935 


kilometers. 


Kilometers 


" 0.62137 


miles. 


Square Inches 


6.452 


square centimeters. 


Square Centimeters 


" 0.155 


' square inches. 


Square Feet 


" 9.250 


square decimeters. 


Square Decimeters 


" 0.108108 


square feet. 


Square Yards 


" 0.836 


square meters. 


Square Meters 


" 1.196 


square yards. 


Acres 


.'...-. " 0.4047 


hectares. 


Hectares 


" 2.471 


acres. 


Square Miles 


" 259.0 


hectares. 


Hectares 


0.003861 


square miles. 


Cubic Inches 


16.387 


cubic centimeters. 


Cubic Centimeters 


" 0.061023 


cubic inches. 


Cubic Feet - 


" 0.02832 


' cubic meters. 


Cubic Meters 


" 85.314 


' cubic feet. 


Cubic Yards 


" 0.765 


cubic meters. 


Cubic Meters 


" 1.308 


cubic yards, 
hectoliters. 


Bushels 


" 0.35242 


Hectoliters 


2.8375 


bushels. 


Fluid Drams 


" 8.70 


milliliters, or cubic centimeters 


Milliliters . 


0.27 


fluid drams. 


Fluid Ounces 


" 29.57 


' milliliters. 


Milliliters 


" 0.033818 


' fluid ounces. 


Quarts 


" 0.94686 


liters. 


Liters 


" 1.0567 


quarts. 


Gallons 


" 8.78544 


liters. 


Liters 


" 0.2641 


gallons. 


Grains 


" 64.7989 


milligrams. 


Milligrams _ 


" 0.01548 


grains. 


Ounces Avoirdupois 


' 28.8495 


grams. 


Grams 


" 0.08527 


ounces avoirdupois. 


Pounds Avoirdupois 


" 458.59242 


grams. 


Grams 


" 0.0022045 ' 


pounds avoirdupois. 


Pounds Avoirdupois . 


" 45859 


' kilograms. 


Kilograms 


2.20462 


pounds avoirdupois. 


Ounces Troy 


" 81.10848 


grams. 


Grams 


" 0.08215 


ounces troy. 


Pounds Avoirdupois 


" 0.0045859 ' 


quintals. 


Quintals 


220.46 


' pounds avoirdupois. 



460 



METRIC AND DECIMAL SYSTEMS 
THE METRIC SYSTEM AT A GLANCE 



Number op 


Length. 


Surface. 




Units. 


Name. 


Equal to 


Name. 


Equal to 


Volume. 


10,000 


Myriameter 

Kilometer 

Hectometer 

- Dekameter 

METER 

Decimeter 

Centimeter 

- Millimeter 


6.2137 mi. 

0.12137 mi. 

328 ft. 1 in. 
32.8 ft. 
39..37 in. 

3.9.37 in. 

0.3937 in. 

0.03937 in. 








1,000 








100 
10 


Hectare 


2.471 acres 


Hectoster 

Dekaster 


UNIT 
1-lOth 


ARE 


119.6 sq. yds. 


STER=1 cubic meter 


MOOth 


Centare 


1,550.0 sq. yds. 




1-lOOOth 













Number of 


Weight. 


Capacity. 


Units. 


Name. 


Equal to 


Name. 


Equal to 


1,000,000 


Millier or Tonneau 

Quintal 

- - - Myriagram _ 

Kilogram or Kilo 

Hectogram 

Dekagram 

GRAM 

Decigram 

Centigram 

Milligram 


2,204.6 lbs. 
220.46 

22.046 " 
2.2046 " 
3.5274 oz. 
0.3527 " 

15.432 grain.s 
1.5432 - 
0.1543 " 
0.0154 " 






100,000 






10,000 






1,000 
100 


Kiloliter or Stere 


264.17 gals. 
26.417 " 


10 




2.6417 " 


UNIT 


LITER 


1 0567 qts. 
0.845 gill 
0.338 fl. oz. 


1-lOth 


Deciliter ... 


1-lOOth 




1-lOOOth 


Milliliter 


0.27 fl. dr. 









PRINCIPLES OF THE DECIMAL, SYSTEM 

The decimal system, on which the United States currency is subdivided, is so 
widely used, especially in scientific work, in this country, that familiarity with 
its notation is indispensable. 

Under the decimal system, every fraction is represented with 10, or some 
multiple of 10 (as, 100, 1,000, 10,000) for its denominator. 

Integers and fractions are written on the same line, the whole number to the 
left, and the fractional to the right, of a point called the decimal point. Thus, 
87.1 = 87y1o. a decimal nwnber is a number which includes a decimal fraction. 

In a decimal fraction, the denominator never is written. The denominator 
is always understood to be 1 with as many ciphers annexed as there are figures 
(called decimal 2il(ices) in the fraction {i. e., to the right of tlie decimal point). 
Thus, 0.7 = yV ; for as there is only one decimal place, the denominator is 1 with 
one cipher, or 10. 0.879 = iV/^. 



PKINCIPLES OF THE DECIMAL SYSTEM 461 

Annexing cijjhers to a whole number multiplies it by 10 ; annexing ciphers to a 
decimal fraction does not change its value. 

Moving the decimal point one place to the left divides a decimal number by 10 ; 
moving the decimal point one place to the right multiplies it by 10. 

To Add Decimals — Arrange so that one decimal point falls 2l!236 

under another, and proceed as in adding integers. 0.008 

» to 840.307 

To Subtract Decimals — Write as for adding, and proceed ^*>?*2^r 
as in ordinary subtraction. 797'827 



21.236 



To Multiply Decimals — Proceed as in ordinary multipli- 
cation ; then point off as many figures from the right of the product 
as there are decimal places in both the multiplicand and the mul- .7)018 

tiplier. In the example given, the multiplicand has 3 decimal places, 169888 

and the multiplier 4. The product, therefore, must have 7, and we ^ ^^^ 

prefix a cipher to make the required number before setting down the ' " 

decimal point. 

To Divide Decimals — Proceed as in ordinary 
division ; then point off from the right of the quotient 

as many decimal places as the number of decimal places 21.9)819.003(37.4: 
in the dividend exceeds the number of decimal places in ^^^ 

the divisor. Ciphers must be annexed to the dividend, 1533 

if necessary, so that its decimal places shall at least equal 870^ 

in number those of the divisor. If the dividend and ^76 

divisor contain the same number of decimal places, the 
quotient is a whole number. 

To Reduce a Common Fraction to 72 )6.0000( .0833 etc. 

o.7o 
Decimal Form — Annex ciphers to the nume- — 240 

rator, and divide by the denominator. In the ex- 216 

ample given, -^ is reduced to its equivalent decimal. ^i'a 

2l 



462 



INTEREST TABLE, HANDY RULES 



TO COMPUTE INTEREST 

In some banks interest is calculated on a basis of 12 months of 30 days each (360 
days to the year) ; in others the 365-day year is used as a basis. The following 
table provides for either usage : 



RULE : Multiply principal by number of days, and divide product, 
for rate of: 

1 per cent by 

2 per cent- by 

3 per cent - by 

4 per cent by 

5 per cent by 

6 per cent --by 

7 per cent - --by 

8 per cent- - - by 

9 per cent by 

10 per cent --- by 

13 per cent - by 

15 per cent. -- by 

18 per cent by 

20 per cent - - - by 

24 per cent by 



365 Days to 


360 Days to 


Year. 


Year. 


36,500 


36,000 


18,250 


18,000 


12,166.66' 


12,000 


9,125 


9,000 


7,800 


7,200 


6,083.33 


6,000 


5,214.29 


5,142.85 


4,562.50 


4,500 


4,055.55 


4,000 


3,650 


3,600 


3,041.67 


3,000 


2,433.33 


2,400 


2,027.77 


2,000 


1,825 


1,800 


1,520.83 


1,500 



RULES, TABLES, AND DEFINITIONS 
LUMBERING, CARPENTRY, ETC. 

Height of Standing Tree, to compute: Set a stick of known length 
vertically in the ground. Measure length of its shadow. Multiply length of 
shadow of tree by length of stick above ground, and divide product by length of 
stick's shadow. All dimensions in feet. 

Volume of Standing Tree, in cubic feet: Divide circumference (in 
feet) at breast height by 3.14, to get diameter. Multiply square of half the diam- 
eter by 3.14 and the product by half the height of the tree. 

Round Timber, volume in cubic feet: Multiply length by one-quarter of 
product of average girth and average diameter, all dimensions feet. If only length 
is in feet, divide result by 144. If all dimensions are in inches, divide result by 
1,728. 

Square Timber, to compute contents in board measure (linear feet of 
equivalent board 1 inch thick and 12 inches wide) : Multiply together length and 
breadth in feet and thickness in inches. 



RULES, TABLES, AND DEFINITIONS 
Value and Weight of Various Woods 



463 



VARIETY. 


Weight of 
1 Cord. 


Equivalent in 
Coal (lbs.) 


Hickory 


4.500 
3,850 
3,250 
3,250 
3,250 
2,350 
2.350 
2,350 
2,000 


2,000 


White Oak 


1,715 


Beech - - 


1,450 


Red Oak 


1,450 


Black Oak 


1,450 


Poplar 


1,050 




1,050 


Elm --- 


1,050 


Pine 




925 









Fencing — One mile of fence requires, for each board in height, 3,640 linear 
feet of 1 X 6-inch stuff. 

Length of Rafters for given pitch of roof, to compute: 



.559, or 
.6 

.625 
.71 



nearly. 



1.12 



I, nearly. 

4 
S 

1^, nearly. 



If pitch is i, multiply span by 
If " i, 
If " f. 
If " i, 
If " i 
If " full, " 
and in each case add length to which rafters project at eaves. 

Span is the horizontal distance between studdings on which roof rests at eaves. 
A roof has ^ pitch when the height of the ridgepole above level of roof-plates is i 
of the span ; full pitch, when height and span are equal. 

Siding — One bundle of clapboards, laid 3^ inches to the weather, will cover 
36 square feet. 

Shingles: Required for Roof, to compute: Multiply tfrea of roof in 
square feet by 9, if shingles are exposed 4 inches ; by 8 if exposed 4^ inches, and by 
7| if exposed 5 inches to the weather. For hip-roofs add one-twentieth to result. 

Paint, to estimate amount necessary for given surface: Divide number of 
square feet of surface to be covered by 200: quotient is approximate number of 
gallons required for two coats; to obtain approximate number of pounds of pure 
ground white lead required for three coats, divide by 18. 

Nails Required for various purposes: To case and hang door, 1 lb.; to case 
and hang tvindotv, f lb.; base, per 100 linear feet, 1 lb.; to put up rafters, stud- 
ding, joists, etc., per 1,000 feet, 3 lbs.; to lay 6-inch pine floor, per 1,000 feet, 15 
lbs.; for bundle of lath, f lb. 3-penny nails; shingles, per 1,000, 6 lbs. 4-pennies. 



464 



CARPENTRY, MA80NW0RK 
Cut Nails, Lengtli and Number to the Pound 



o 

■^ 
a 


Length. 


Common. 


o 
.9 
O 


6 
o 
a 


a 
'3 






fab 
o 

1 


"fab 
a 

CD 


1 


8 

o 


CO 

Mi 
■ft 

CO 
"3 

o 




4 incli 












800 
500 
376 
224 

180 














i inch 
















... 






2d 
3d 
4d 


1 inch. 


800 

464 

296 

224 

168 

120 
88 
70 
60 
48 
36 
24 
17 
13 
9i 
8 


.... 


.... 


1100 

720 

523 

410 

268 

188 

146 

130 

102 

76 

62 

54 


1000 
800 
368 






li" inch 












14^ inch 


.... 


.... 


398 
224' 










5d 


1 J inch - 


178 


126' 
98 
75 
65 
55 
40 
27 


130 
96 

82 
68 




6d 


2 inch . -- 


95 
74 
62 
53 
46 
42 
38 
33 
20 


84 
64 
48 
36 
30 
24 
20 
16 




7d 
8d 


2J- inch 




2i inch - - - 




.... 


128 
110 
91 
71 
54 
40 
33 
27 


74 
60 
52 




9d 






lOd 


3 inch -- 




28 


12d 


Si inch - 




16d 
20d 


3i inch -- 

4 inch 


?,9, 






14* 


30d 
40d 
50d 
60d 




12* 










9* 




















8 


6 inch •- 

6i inch . 




















6 




















5* 


- • - - 


7 inch 






















4* 





8 inch 




-- 


















2* 























Steel-wire nails run about one-half more to the pound. 

MASON WORK, LATHING, AND PLASTERING 

Brick — Common brick measure about 2x4.x8j inches and contain G6 cubic 

inches, 26 occupying the space of a cubic foot, or 706 a cubic yard. Brickwork is 

estimated by the thousand. A brickhiyer, supplied with materials by a tender, will 

average from 1,500 to 2,000 bricks a day. Work is estimated thus : 

Wall 1 brick ( Sk inches) thick, 14 bricks per square foot of surface. 
•' li bricks (12f " ) " 21 " 
" 2 '• (17 '• ) " 28 " 
" 2i " (2H ' ) " 35 " 

Paving brick run 36 to the square yard, if laid flat ; 82 if on edge. 

Lime, Sand, and Cement — To lay 1,000 brick, 1^ barrels of lime and 
I yard of sand. To lay 100 feet of rubble stone, li barrels lime and 1 yard sand, 
or li barrels of cement and | yard sand (150 feet is a day's work for one man and 
tender). 



RULES, TABLES,- AND DEFINITIONS 



465 



Chiiniieys — Eor 1 foot in height, 5 courses of brick. For flue 4x 12 inches, 
8 bricks in a course. For flue 8x16 inches, 16 in a course. To find inside sec- 
tional area, in square inches, of smallest point in chimney for stationary engine, 
multiply pounds of coal consumed per hour by 13, and divide product by square 
root of height of chimney in feet. 

Cement — One bushel of cement and 2 bushels of sand will cover 3^ square 
yards 1 inch thick. With 1 bushel of sand, 1 bushel of cement will cover 2^ square 
yards 1 inch thick. 

Lathing and Plastering — Onebundleof (100) lath, dimensions :^x 1^x60 
inches, will cover 5 square yards ; 2 barrels of lime, 1^ yards of good sand, and 1^ 
bushels of hair will lay one coat of plaster on 100 square yards of lathing; 3^ bar- 
rels of lime are required for two coats. 

MISCELLANEOUS COMPUTATIONS 

Capacity of Cylindrical Tank, Silo, etc., to compute: Multiply to- 
gether the square of the diameter (inches) and the height (inches). Multiply 
product for U. 8. gallons, by 0.0034; /or U. S. struck bushels, by 0.0003652; for 
tons of silage (averaging 50 cubic feet to the ton), by 0.00000909. 

Calculation of Staves Reqviired for Stave Silos — The following 
table will be found useful in calculating the number of staves required for silos of 
different diameters, and the feeding areas which these will give: 

Circvimferences and Areas of Circles 



Diameter, 

Feet. 


Circum- 
ference, 
Feet. 


Area, 
Square 
Feet. 


Diameter, 
Feet. 


Circum- 
ference, 
Feet. 


Area, 
Square 

Feet. 


Diameter, 

Feet. 


Circum- 
ference, 
Feet. 


Area, 

Square 
Feet. 


8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


25.1 
28.3 
31.4 
34.6 
37.7 
40.8 
44.0 
47.1 
50.3 


50.3 

63.6 

78.5 

95.0 

113.1 

132.7 

153.9 

176.7 

201.1 


17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
34 


53.4 
56.5 
59.7 
62.8 
66.0 
69.1 
72.3 
75.4 


227.0 
254.5 
283.5 
314.2 
346.4 
380.1 
415.5 
452.4 


25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 


78.5 
81.7 
84.8 
88.0 
91.1 
94.2 
97.4 
100.5 


490.9 
530.9 
572.6 
615.8 
660.5 
706.9 
754.8 
804.2 



To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diameter by 3.14159. 
To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the diameter by 0.7854. 
To find the cubical content of a cylinder, multiply the area of the base by the 
heigrht. 



4:66 MISCELLANEOUS COMPUTATIONS 

Capacity of Boxes, Square Silos, Cisterns, and Hay Mows, to 

compute: Multiply together the inside length, breadth, and height, in inches, and 
multiply, for struck bushels, by 0.0004G6; /or gallons, by 0.004329; for tons of 
silage (averaging 40 lbs. to the cubic foot), by 0.00001157; /or to7is of hay (roughly, 
assuming 400 cubic feet to the ton, which is about the minimum), by 0.000001447. 

Quantity of Hay in Stack, to estimate : Multiply together the length, 
breadth, and height to eaves jjIus one-half the vertical distance from level of eaves 
to crest — all in feet. Divide product by number of cubic feet allowed for a ton. 
Or, if slope from ground to crest is uniform, multiply together the length, breadth, 
and one-half the vertical height, all in feet, and divide by number of cubic feet to 
the ton (see above). The space occupied by a ton of hay will vary with the depth 
of the mow or stack and the kind of hay, whether coarse and hollow-stemmed or 
fine and compact. 

Corn in Crib, to estimate amount: If sides of crib are vertical, divide 
product of length, breadth, and height (in inches) by 2,748. Quotient is contents 
in heaped bushels. If crib has inclining sides, multiply half the sum of the top 
and bottom widths by the vertical height, and the product by the length (all in 
inches). Divide the product by 2,748. For amount of shelled corn ears will yield, 
take one-half the number of bushels of ears. 

Grain in Bin, to estimate amount: Find capacity in cubic inches as above, 
and multiply, for small grain or shelled corn, by 0.000463; for corn in the ear, by 
0.000232. The result will be United States bushels. Small grains run about 1;^ 
cubic feet, and ear corn about 2^ cubic feet to the bushel, the figures varying some- 
what with the condition and quality of grain, the depth of the bin, and the length 
of time grain has been allowed to settle. 

Coal in Bin, to estimate quantity: Multiply together length, breadth, and 
thickness (in feet) and multij)ly product by .024. Eesult will be tons. 

Contents of Hopi^er, in U. S. bushels: Multiply together the length, 
breadth, and one-third the depth (measured vertically to the point), all in inches. 
Multiply the product by 0.000466. 

Cost of Mixed Feeds, Fertilizers, etc., to compute : Multiply the 
quantity of each ingredient (in pounds) by its price per pound ; add the products, 
and divide their sum by the total quantity (in pounds). Quotient will be average 
price per pound. 



KULES, TABLES, AND DEEINITIONS 



467 



Dimensions of an Acre — A square 13.649 rods, or 69.57 yards, or 208.72 
feet, on a side, contains an acre. An acre is contained, also, in a rectangle having 
any of the following dimensions (in rods) : 



1 X 160 


4 X 40 


7 X 22f 


10 X 16 




U X 1061 


a X 35f 


7* X 21i 


lOi X ISgSj 




2 X 80 


5 X 32 


8 X 20 


11 X 14A 




2ix 64 


5i X 29i«i 


8i X 181^ 


Hi X 13U 




3 X 53i 


6 X 26| 


9 X Hi 


12 X 13i 




Six 45f 


6i X 24jB3 


9i X 16[| 


12i X 12| 





Therinometer Scales 





Freezing 
Point. 


Boiling 
Point. 


Intermediate 
Divisions. 


Fahrenheit 

Centigrade 


32° 

0° 
0° 


212° 
100° 

80° 


180° 
100° 


Reaumur 


80° 







To convert Centigrade degrees into Fahrenheit, multiply by | and add 32. 
To convert Eeaumur degrees into Fahrenheit, multijily by f and add 32. Remem- 
ber that degrees below zero are minus quantities, and that adding minus quan- 
tities to positive quantities diminishes the latter by the amount of the former. 



Weights of Various Substances for Given Volumes 



MATERIAL. 



Volume. 



Weight. 



Bituminous Coal 

Bituminous Coal... . 

Anthracite Coal 

Charcoal (hardwood) 
Charcoal ( standard) . 

Gravel (in bank) 

Gravel (dry)... 

Sand _..... 

Earth (in bank) 

Earth (dry) 

Clay 

Cement (Portland).. 
Cement (Rosendale). 
Lime 



1 bushel. 

1 cubic foot. 

1 cubic foot. 

1 cubic foot. 

1 bushel. 
18 cubic feet. 
27 cubic feet. 
25 cubic feet. 
18 cubic feet. 
27 cubic feet. 
17 cubic feet. 

1 barrel. 

1 struck bushel. 

1 struck bushel. 



76 lbs. 
50-55 lbs. 
55-66 lbs. 

18.5 lbs. 

20 lbs. 



1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

400-430 

62- 70 

72- 75 



ton. 
ton. 
ton. 
ton. 
ton. 
ton. 
lbs. 
lbs. 
lbs. 



468 



LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL 



Legal and Customary Weights, per Bushel, iu various States 



STATE. 


"5 

a 

s 

1 

a 
< 


03 

a 
ft 
< 


•c 
.2 

P 

ft 
ft 


PQ 


CO 

a 

01 

P3 


i 

EC 
i 

be 

0) 
3 

S 


03 
CD 


02 

33 
> 
o 

o 


1 

a 
o 
a 
o 


1 

03 

a 
o 
O 


"5 
a 

a 


■6 


2 

O 


a 
o 

c 
O 


1 


s 

^ 


CO 

•V 

o 
o 


2 

1 




1 


o 


.1 
a 
u 
3 
H 


1 


Alabama 


80 

80 
80 




24 

24 

24 

25 
24 
24 
24 

22 

28 

24 

-. 
25 

22 

26 
26 

28 

28 


47 
48 
50 

48 
48 

47 
48 
47 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
47 

48 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
46 
47 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 


60 
60 

60 
60 

62 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

62 
62 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
62 

62 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
62 
60 

60 
60 


14 

14 

14 
14 
14 
14 
14 

i4 

14 

14 
14 

14 


48 
52 
40 
52 

48 

48 
48 
52 
42 
52 
50 
52 
50 
56 

48 

48 
48 
50 

52 
52 
52 

50 
48 
50 
42 
50 
42 
42 
48 

56 
42 
50 
42 
48 
52 
42 
52 
48 


60 

60 

60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

64 
60 
64 
60 
60 
60 
60 
62 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
64 

60 
60 


70 

70 

70 
68 
70 
70 

* 

70 

70 

70 
72 

70 

70 


56 

56 
52 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
58 
54 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 


48 

48 

50 
50 

48 
48 
48 
48 

48 
50 

50 
50 
50 
50 

50 
50 

48 
50 
50 

50 
46 

48 
50 
50 

50 
50 
50 


56 

56 

56 

56 
54 
56 

56 
56 

55 
55 

5t5 

44 
56 

56 

56 


32 
32 
32 
32 

32 

32 
32 
32 
36 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
26 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
30 
32 
30 
32 
32 
32 
36 
30 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 


57 
57 

50 

57 
57 
57 

57 
48 
57 
57 
57 

52 

52 
54 

57 

57 
57 
52 

57 

57 
55 
52 

50 
50 
57 
52 
56 
57 
52 
57 

57 


38 

33 
33 
33 
33 

39 

40 

28 
28 

33 

33 

48 

50 

40 

33 

28 


46 
60 

60 

60 
60 

60 

60 
60 
60 
50 

60 

60 

60 

60 
60 


60 
60 

60 
60 

56 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
56 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
CO 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 


50 

55 

55 

46 
50 
55 

56 
56 

54 
50 

50 
50 

56 


56 
56 
54 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 


50 

50 

56 

50 
50 
50 
50 
50 

56 
56 

50 
50 

• 
85 

50 
70 


60 
45 

45 
45 
45 

45 
45 
45 
45 
45 

45 

45 

45 
45 
45 
45 
45 
45 

45 
44 

42 
45 

42 

42 

45 
45 
45 
45 
40 
45 
45 


55 

57 

50 

55 

55 
55 

55 

55 
60 

60 

58 
52 

42 

50 
55 

60 
60 
60 

60 
50 
55 
60 
56 

42 


60 
fiO 


Calif oruia 

Colorado . _ _ 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 


60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 


Idaho 

Illinois -_ 


60 
60 


Indiana 


60 


Iowa .-: 


80 
80 
76 


48 

24 

44 

48 
48 


60 


Kansas 


60 


Kentucky 


60 


Louisiana 




Maine 




60 


Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 




60 
60 


Minnesota 




60 


Mississippi 

Missouri 




48 

50 

48 
45 

50 
46 
45 
57 


60 
60 


Montana _.. 

Nebraska 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 




60 
60 
60 
60 


New York i 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 




60 
60 
60 
60 


Oklahoma 

Oregon 




60 
60 


Pennsylvania 

Rhode'Islaud 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 




60 
60 
60 
60 
60 


Texas 

Vermont 




60 
60 


Virginia 


80 


60 


Washington 


60 


West Virginia 

Wisconsin 




60 
60 









November 1 to May 1, 70 lbs.; remainder of year, 68 lbs. 



RULE8, TABLES, AND DEFINITIONS 



469 



Milk, quarts and pounds: To convert quarts of milk into pounds, multiply 
by 2.15; to convert pounds into quarts, multiply by 0.47. 

Dried Fruit and Cider — A bushel of average apples will make from 6 to 
74- lbs. of di'ied fruit ; 7 to 17 bushels of apples make 1 bbl. of cider. 



Strength of Ropes, in Pounds 



Circumference 


1 in. 


liin. 


2 in. 


2iin. 


Sin. 


4 in. 


5 in. 


Bin. 


Manila. . 


100 

200 

2,500 


225 

450 
5,625 


400 

800 

10,000 


625 

1,250 

15,625 


900 

1,800 

22,500 


1,600 

3,200 

40,000 


2,500 

5,000 

62,500 


3,600 


Hemp 

Steel Wire 


7,200 
90.000 







The breaking weights greatly exceed the foregoing, which are considered safe 
strains. 

Strength of Chains 



Diameter 


Weight per ft. 


Strength 


Diameter 


Weight per ft. 


Strength 


inches. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


inches. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


J. 
4 


0.875 


1,288 


n 


5.000 


9.660 


i^e 


1.000 


1.932 


i 


5.875 


11,592 


1 


1.700 


2,790 


i 


8.000 


14,989 


1^ 


2.000 


3,864 


1 


10.700 


19.712 


i 


2.500 


5,182 


li 


12.500 


25,050 


^ 


3.200 


6,440 


n 


16.000 


30,800 


i 


4.125 


7.942 


If 


18.400 


37.165 



Hydraulic Rams — Used for pumping, where considerable flow of water, 
but only moderate fall (from 2 to 30 feet) can be obtained. With drive pipe 25 to 
50 feet long, set in bed of stream, water can be conveyed half a mile and elevated 
200 feet. Inexpensive after first cost, which is moderate. 

Windmills and Pumicing — One horsepower will raise 59 gals, water 
56 ft. per minute. A windmill with 8^-ft. wheel, wind at 16 miles per hour, will 
raise 3 gals, water per minute to a height of 56 ft.; 10-ft. wheel, 9.5 gals, per 
minute; 12-ft. wheel, 18 gals. ; 14-ft. wheel, 22.5 gals.; 16^ft. wheel,' 32 gals.; 18-ft. 
wheel, 52 gals.; 20-ft. wheel, 64 gals.; 25-ft. wheel, 107 gals. 

Waterpowers — Overshot Wheels. — With fall of 10 feet from water-level in 
penstock to level in wheel-pit (wheel running) the flow of a body of water 2 inches 
deep over weir 5 feet wide will produce about 1 H. P. For greater depths the 
power increases more rapidly than the depth. 



Wholesome Cooking Without Waste . 

Adapted from Francois Tanty 

INDEX 

The Family Dinner : Its Elements 472 

Setting the Table 472 

Service of Wines 472 



SOUPS 

Asparagus, cream of (Creme d'asperges) 475 

Barley (Potage a I'orge) 474 

Bean, white kidney (Potage conde) 475 

Beet (Creme de betteraves a la polonaise) 474 

Bouillon 475 

Carrot (Puree crecy) 475 

Cauliflower, cream of (Creme de choux fleiirs)... .47 5 

Celery, cream of (Crime de celeri) 475 

Consomme 474 

Consomme with rice (Consomme au riz) 474 

Fowl, cream of (Potage a la reine) 474 

Green pea (Potage St. Germain) 475 

Julienne 474 

Macaroni (Consomme au macaroni) 474 

Oxtail (Potage "oxtail") 474 

Oyster (Soupe aiix huttres) 474 

Potato (Potage parmentier) 475 

Pumpkin, cream of (Creme de potirons) 475 

Puree or cream 473 

Stock 474 

Tomato (Potage andaloux) 474 

Vegetable .(Potage paysanne) 475 

Velvet (Potage velour) 475 

RELISHES 

Cucumber salad (Salade de concombres) 475 

Fowl, croquettes of (Croquettes de volaille) 476 

Fowl, fillets of (Filets de volaille) 476 

Olives (Olives) 475 

Oysters (Huitres) 476 

Oysters, fried (Huitres frittes) 476 

Radishes (Radis).._ 475 

Ramkins (Ramequins) 476 

Sardines (Sardines) 475 

Smoked or dried meat or fish 475 

Tomatoes, fried (Tomates frittes) 476 

FISH AND SHELL, PISH 

Sauces for Fish 476, 478 

Bass, baked (Bass au four) 476 

Black bass, boiled (Black bass au.r fines herbes)..477 

Black bass, broiled (Black bass grille).. 477 

Brook trout, fried (Petites truites frittes) 477 

Clams, escalioped 478 

Cod, baked (Cabillaud au four) 476 

Crabs, deviled (Crabes farcis) '. 478 

Crabs, soft shell, fried (Crabes mous frits) 478 

Eels, broiled (.4nguilles grilles) 477 

Frog's legs, fried (Grenouilles frittes) 477 

Lobster, broiled (Homard grille) 478 

Lobster, cold boiled (Homard froid) 478 

Oysters, escalioped (Escalope d'liuitres) 477 

Oysters, fried (Huitres frittes) 477 

Perch, fried (Perches frittes) .-. 477 

Pickerel, Jewish style (Brocket a la juive) 477 

"Pigs in Blankets" (Huitres au lard) 477 

Pike, boiled (Pike au court bouillon) 476 

Salmon, boiled (Saumon au court bouillon) 476 

Salmon, broiled (Sattmon grille) 476 

Salt cod (Morue sale bouilli) 477 

Salt mackerel, boiled (Maquercau sale bouilli). ...477 

Shad, baked (.-ilose au four) 476 

Shadroe, broiled (Oeufs d'alose grilles) 477 



Trout, broiled (Truite au court bouillon) 476 

Whitefish, broiled (Whitefish grille) r477 

EGGS 

A la tzarine (Oeufs a la tzarinc) 478 

Deviled (Oeufs farcis) 479 

Escalioped (Escalope d' Oeufs) 479 

Hard boiled (Oeufs durs) 478 

Omelet, plain, with hashed parsley (Omelette aux 

fines herbes) 479 

Scotch (Oeufs a I'ccessaise) 479 

Scrambled, with cheese (Oeufs brouilles au from- 

age) ^ 479 

Scrambled with toast (Oeufs brouilles aux crou- 
tons) 479 

Shirred (Oeufs sur le plat) 479 

With cream (Oeufs a la creme) 478 

MEATS 

Releves, Entrees, and Roasts 479 

General Notes on Cooking Meats 480 

Sauces for Meats 484 

Garnishes for Meats 484 

Beefsteak, broiled (Entrecote maitre d'hotel) 480 

Beef, corned — New England boiled dinner (Petit 

sale aux chou.r) 483 

Beef, creamed, dried (Boeuf sec a la creme) 481 

Beef croquettes (Croquettes de boeuf)....- 481 

Beef heart, stuffed (Coeur de boeuf farci) 481 

Beef loaf 481 

Beef, minced (Emince de boeuf a la bourgeoise) ..4Sl 

Beef "Mock duck" (Entrecote farcie) 481 

Beef, pot-roast of (Boeuf a la mode) 481 

Beef, roasiJRosbif a I'Anglaise) 480 

Beef saute '(Boeuf saute a la strogonoff) 480 

Beefsteak, smothered in onions (Entrecote au.r 

oignons) 481 

Beef tenderloin, braised (Filet braise jardiniere). .4S0 

Beef tenderloin, roast (Filet roti) , 480 

Beef tenderloin steak a I'Americaine (Filet saute 

a r.4mericaine) 481 

Beef tenderloin steak, with mushrooms (Filet 

saute au.v champignons) 481 

Beef tenderloin, with green peas (Fi7<?i saute au.r 

petits pois) .". 481 

Beef tongue, cold, salted, or smoked (Langue 

froide) 481 

Kidney savite (Rognons sautes) 484 

Kidneys, veal, broiled (Rognons de veau bro- 

chette) 484 

Lamb, leg of, with mint sauce (Gigot d'Agneau 

sauce men the) 482 

Mutton chops. English, broiled (Cotelettes de 

mouton grillees a I'Anglaise) 483 

Mutton chops, French, broiled (Cotelettes de 

mouton grillees a la Franqaise) 483 

Mutton — Irish stew (Ragout de mouton a I'lrlan- 

daise) 482 

Mutton, leg of, a la Fran^aise (Gigot de mouton 

a la Fran(aise) .......„482 

Mutton, leg of, boiled (Gigot de mouton bouilli a 

I'Anglaise) .:. 482 

Mutton, saddle of, roasted (Selle de mouton a 

I'Anglaise) 482 



(470) 



INDEX TO COOKING 



471 



IMulton, slioukler of, stuffed {lEpaule de moulon 

fat etc) 483 

Pork choiis, broiled, with tomato sauce (Cotelettes 

dc pore grillccs sauce tomate) 483 

Porls, fried salt, with cream sauce (Petit sale frit 

sauce ercme) 483 

Pork — Head cheese (Frontage de tete de coclton).. 483 
Pork — Ham, sugar-roast of (Jambon rati sucre) .A%3 
Pork — New England boiled dinner (Petit sale aux 

eltoux) 483 

Pork— Pig's feet, boiled (Pieds de cockonbouillis) 483 

Pork — Pig's Feet, broiled (Fieds de cochon grilles). ..A9,i 

Pork, roast (Carre de pore roli) 483 

Pork sparerib, roast (Cotes de eocltoit rotis) 483 

Rabbit saute (Lapin saute chasseur) 483 

Sweetbreads with spinach (Ris de veau aux 

cpinards) 482 

\'eal a la Bourgeoise (Veau a la Bourgeoise) 482 

\'eal — Calf's liver with parsley (Foie de veau aux 

fines hcrbes) 482 

X'eal chops, broiled (Cotelettes de veau grillees)..4&2 
N'eal chops, with French peas (Cotelettes de veau 

aux petits pois) 482 

\'eal chops with mushrooms (Cotelettes de veau 

aux champignons) 482 

X'eal kidneys, see Kidneys. 

Veal loaf 481 

\'eal loin, roast (Longe de veau roti) 481 

\>al potpie (Ragout de veau) 482 

\'eal — Small Parisian patties (Petites pates a la 

parisienne) 482 

POULTRY AND GAME 

General Remarks 484 

Chicken, broiled (Poulet grille).. 485 

Chicken fricassee (Fricassee de poulet) 485 

Chicken, fried (Poulet frit a I'ltalienne) 485 

Chicken pie (Poulet saute) 485 

Chicket, roast (Poulet roti) 485 

Chicken, spring, saute (Jeune poulet saute fer- 

inicre) 485 

Duck, roast (Canard roti) 485 

Goose, roast (Oie roti) 485 

Partridge, roast (Perdrix roties) 486 

Pigeons, broiled (Pigeons a la Crapaudine) 486 

Quail, roast (Caillcs roties) 486 

Snipe, roast (Bccassines roties) 486 

Turkey giblets (Abatis de Dinde) 485 

Turkey, roast (Dinde rotie) 485 

\'enison, saddle of, roast (Selle de Cltevreuil 

rotie) : 486 

Woodcock, roast (Becasses rotis) 486 

SALADS 

Sai.ad Dressings 487 

Cabbage — Cold slaw (Salade de chou) 487 

Chicken salad (Salade de foule) 486 

Egg salad (Salade d'Ocufs) 487 

Fish salad (Salade de poisson) 486 

Lettuce salad (Salade de laitue) 487 

Lobster salad (Salade de hontard) 487 

Pig's feet salad (Salade de pieds de cochon) 487 

Potato salad (Salade de pom-mcs de terre) 487 

Veal salad (Salade de veau) 486 

VEGETABLES 

Asparagus with white sauce (Asperges sauce 

blanche) 488 

Beans, baked (Haricots ati four) 488 

Beans, Boston baked (Haricots au four a la Boston) ..488 
Beans, Lima, with butter (Gros Soissons au 

Betirre) : 488 

Beans, string (Haricots a la Bonne Fentme) 488 



Beans, string, English style (Haricots verts a 

I'Anglaise) 487 

Beets, boiled (Betteraves bouillies) 489 

Carrots fried in butter (Carottes nouvelles sau- 

tecs au Beurre) 488 

Cauliflower au gratin (Choux fleurs au Gratin)..A%9 
Cauliflower with white sauce (Choux fleurs sauce 

blanche) 489 

Celery with gravy (Ceteris au jus) >. 488 

Corn, escalloped (Escalope de ma'is) 488 

Corn fritters (Croquettes de mats) 488 

Corn, sweet, broiled (Mais grille) 488 

Corn, sweet, with butter (Mais a I' Americaine).. 4S8 
Cucumbers, creamed (Concombres d la ere me). ...4S9 

Egg plant, fried (Aubergines frittes) 489 

Macaroni a I'ltalienne 490 

Macaroni au gratin (Macaroni au gratin) 490 

Macaroni with tomato sauce (Macaroni satice 

tomate) 490 

Mushrooms on toast (Croutcs aux champignons) . .4^9 
Mushrooms with cream (Champignons a la creme)489 

Oatmeal (Farine d'Ai'oine a I'Americaine) 490 

Onions, creamed (Oignons a la creme) 489 

Parsnip croquettes (Croquettes de panets) 489 

Parsnips, fried (Panets frits) 489 

Peas, French (Petits pois a la Francaise) .*.... 487 

Peas, green, English style (Petits pois a la Ang- 

laise) 487 

Peas, green, with bacon (Petits pois au lard) 487 

Potato croquettes {Croquettes de pommes de terre), ..490 
Potatoes au gratin (Pommes de terre ati gratin). .490 
Potatoes duchesse (Pommes de terre duchcsse) ....490 

Potatoes, fried (Pommes de terre frittes) 490 

Potatoes, puff'ed (Pommes de terres sou f flees). ...490 
Potatoes with cream (Pommes de terre a la 

creme) 490 

Rice a la Georgienne (Ris a la Georgienne) 490 

Salsify, boiled (Salsihs bouillis) 490 

Spaghetti with tomato sauce (Spaghetti sauce to- 
mate) 490 

Spinach with cream (Epinards a la creme) 488 

Spinach with poached egg (Epinards aux oeufs 

pochcs) 488 

Squash, baked (Citrottilles au four) 489 

Squash, boiled (Citronillcs bouillies) 489 

Succotash (Haricots au mats) 488 

Sweet potatoes, boiled (Pommes de terre sticrees 

en robe de chambrc) 490 

Tomatoes, fried (Tomates frittes) 489 

Tomatoes, stuff^ed (Tomates farcies) 489 

Turnips, boiled (Navets bouillis) 489 

\'egetable oysters (Salsifis bouillis) 490 

BREADS 

General Notes on Bread Making 491 

Yeast, soft 491 

Miscellaneous Breads 491, 493 

PASTRY AND PUDDINGS 

Remarks on Pastry 493 

French Puff Paste ; 493 

Plain Pie-crust 493 

Miscellaneous Pies 493, 494 

General Remarks on Puddings 494 

Miscellaneous Puddings 494, 496 

Sauces for Puddings 496 

Ice Creams and Ices 496 

CAKES 

General Remarks on Cake Making 497 

Miscellaneous Cakes 497, 499 

Small Cakes, Crullers, and Cookies 499 

Icings for Cakes ». 499 



Wholesome Cooking- Without Waste 

Adapted from FRAN901S Tanty 1 

The best cooking is as easily accomplished as is that of inferior sort. Assuming that the 
housewife is well grounded in the fundamentals of her art, there is none who may not gather, 
£j'om the experience of the chefs of a nation that has made gastronomy a fine art, suggestions for 
making dainty dishes even daintier, and for enlarging the variety of the daily menus. In the 
following cooking rules, most of which have been selected from among the recipes worked out 
for American use by the late M. Tanty, there is no departure from the essential principles he 'ays 
down, but the extreme of simplicity has been sought, lest the reader be needlessly appalled by 
elaborate and oft-repeated admonition. The recipes for sweet cakes herein given, however, are not 
M. Tanty's, and such other additions and modifications have been made as have seemed expedient. 

Tlie question of usiiigr wines and spirits in cooking and as beverages is witli some a matter 
of choice ; Avitli others, of conscience. The preferences of the one class, and the scruples of the 
other, are entitled to respect, and although wines and spirits are included in some few of the 
recipes that follow, they may quite as w^ell be omitted, if the housewife prefers. 

A Family Dinner is essentially composed of : 

A Soup 

A Fish or Meat, with sauce and vegetable — called an "entree" 

A Roast — meat, poultry, or game 

A Vegetable of the season, or one dried or canned, called an "entremet" (side dish) 

A Sweet Dish — ice cream or pastry 

Cheese and Fruit 

Provided the dinner becomes more fashionable, one should serve two kinds of soup, a clear 
one and a puree or cream, from which the guest may choose; and should increase the number of 
entrees and entremets. 

Setting the Table —As regards the setting of the table, we will give only practical hints, 
taking for example a quite fashionable dinner, leaving to the housewife the simplifying of the 
scheme to serve for family dinners. 

The table should be spacious enough to avoid the crowding of dishes or covers and the too 
close seating of guests. Around a centerpiece of flowers may be disposed (if the size of the table 
will permit) smaller pieces, with fruits, bonbons, etc., and also the "hors d'oeuvres," served in 
special small dishes. Candlelight being more fashionable than gas, candelabra should be placed 
in sufficient number. 

Before each plate place the necessary number of glasses, according to the wines that are to be 
served. This number will not exceed five, viz. : A glass for water; a glass for white wine, claret, 



(472) 



WHOLESOME COOKING: SOUPS 478 

and Burgundy; a glass for Madeira, sherry, and sweet dessert wines; a glass (usually green or 
amber, for Rhine wine (if served); a glass for champagne. 

Do not fill the water glass before the dinner, but place decanters and crystal bowls filled with 
pieces of ice within easy reach of the guests. 

At the right of each cover place the knife, fork, and spoon (the knife having a sharp steel 
blade). These should be changed with each course. Before the cover place a smaller knife, fork, 
and spoon (the knife with a silver blade) for the sweet dishes and dessert. The napkin should be 
of good size, placed on the plate, folded, with a small roll between the folds. Between each two 
covers should be pepper and salt. Before each cover, and supported by the glass, should be a 
menu, printed or hand written. For menu use, where desired, the French name of each dish is 
given hereafter (See Index). On each card one may write the name of the particular guest who 
is to occupy the place. 

Service of Wines — In every dinner " a la Fran9aise " wine is served ; the number, kinds, 
and quality varying, of course, according to the importance of the dinner. The general order in 
which they are served is as follows : After the soup — a strong, dry wine, such as Madeira or 
Sherry; with the fish — a white, dry wine, such as the Sauternes, Chablis, Chateau d'Yquem, 
Rhine wine, etc. ; after the fish and until the roast — Claret; with the roast — Burgundy; with sweet 
dishes — champagne or dessert wines, such as Tokay, Malaga, or Constance. 

A word as to the manner of serving wine is necessary. White wine ought to be chilled and is 
placed in cold water for one hour before serving. It is the same with ordinary claret. Fine wines, 
as clai'et of good quality. Burgundy, Madeira, sherry, and port wine, ought to be taken from the 
cellar at least one hour before serving, so as to take the temperature of the air. Do not disturb 
the dust which with age has accumulated on the bottle. Draw the cork with great care, so as not 
to mix the dregs with the wine, and pour into the glasses without shaking the bottle. In the case 
of champagne, break the wires that hold the cork, but preserve the threads ; place in a tub or pail, 
and pack around the bottles cracked ice mixed with salt (5 pounds ice to 2 pounds salt). Stop 
freezing as soon as the champagne begins to be a little cloudy. 

As a last admonition, remember the old adage : "'The dinner never should await the guests, 
but the guests the dinner ; because, however well cooked, a dish can not be warmed over." 

SOUPS 

By modifying some of the recipes that follow — for instance, by replacing one kind of vege- 
table in a puree with another, by using game instead of fowl, or by varying the garnishing — the 
housewife will have an infinite number of soups at her disposal. She should always be careful, 
however, to follow closely the general rules, and especially in those essential points emphasized by 
heavy type. 



PUREE OR CREAM: GENERAL NOTE 



"liaison"' (binding), to unite all the parts. This is 



The puree, or creaui, is quite a thick soup, very made with yolks, cream, and butter, sometimes flour 

palatable and substantial. It is made out of fowl, or starch. One must never forget that this 

game, vegetables, or fish. In every case one must first liaison should be added only when ready to 

cook the particular materials until tender, and then serve ; that the saucepan must be placed on 

strain them, to obtain a reasonably clear liquor, to a corner of the range ; that one should add 

which must be added what the French cooks call a some of the hot liquor to the liaison before 



474 



SOUPS 



pouring the latter into the saucepan ; and that 
never, under any circumstances, should a soup 
be permitted to boil after pouring in a liaison. 

BOUILtON, STOCK SOUP 

Stock being the foundation of many soups, and 
serving also for the basis of many sauces and dishes, it 
would prove advantageous for a housewife always to 
have some stock on hand. Stock may be kept fresh for 
several days in an earthen jar in an icebox, the only 
precaution necessary being to let it boil awhile, in case 
of a very hot or stormy day, to prevent souring. 

For 1 gallon, wash thoroughly 5 pounds cheap beef 
and bones and 2 pounds hock veal. Put in kettle and 
cover with cold water. Boil slowly, skimming until 
clear, and adding from time to time a tablespoonful of 
cold water, to hasten separation of scum. When clear, 
add 2 carrots, i^ turnip, 1 onion, and some celery, and 
boil for 2 hours. Remove the veal, add 1 old fowl (cut 
in pieces), and boil slowly 3 hours more. Skim off float- 
ing grease and strain soup. Bouillon should be only 
lightly salted. Half of the onion should have been 
browned on the stove, to give color and taste. 

CONSOMME 

Consomme is the name given to a stock stronger 
and more palatable than the common one. It forms 
the foundation of the soups for the more fashionable 
dinners, or is served in cups at ball suppers or lunch- 
eons. 

Cut in pieces 1 old fowl and 2 pounds veal hock ; let 
them brown lightly in butter; then put them in a kettle 
with 3 to 4 quarts of stock. Cook slowly for 2 hours, 
skimming from time to time. Remove floating grease 
and pass through strainer, or, better, a cloth. 

JULIENNE 

Slice 1 carrot, J^ turnip, Yio cabbage, and J^ leek 
(or onion) into thin strips; put them in saucepan with 
a little butter and a teaspoonful of sugar, and let cook 
awhile. Pour over them 2 quarts stock or consomme 
and cook for IJ^ hours. 

CONSOMME WITH RICE 

Wash 1 tablespoonful rice and boil in water until 
soft; let drip, and cool with cold w^ater; then let 
drip again. Warm 2 quarts stock or consomme, and 
when ready to serve put rice in soup, which must not 
be allowed to boil again. 

MACARONI 

Break 2 ounces macaroni in J^-inch pieces, cook in 
boiling water, and proceed as for consomme with rice. 



OXTAIt SOUP 

Cut 1 oxtail in 1-inch pieces; boil in water until 
tender; let drip, and remove grease and small bones. 
Put in a saucepan with 2 or 3 quarts bouillon. 14 glass 
Madeira, 1 onion, 1 carrot, and some thyme and laurel; 
let the whole cook for 3 hours. Pour the bouillon through 
a strainer into another saucepan; take off floating 
grease; add ]/^ glass Madeira and a little red pepper; 
• cook awhile, and when ready to serve, add while stir- 
ring, 1 tablespoonful cornstarch mixed with 1 glas.s 
cold bouillon. Serve in tureen in which the pieces of 
tail have been placed. 

BARLEY SOUP 

Wash3tablespoonfuls barley, and let .stand 54 hour 
in cold water ; let drip, drop into boiling water, and 
cook until soft. Let drip, cool with cold water, and 
drip again. Put the barley in a saucepan with 2 quarts 
stock and cook for 1 hour. When ready to serve, beat 
together 1 yolk, 1 glassful cream, 1 tablespoonful but- 
ter ; add little by little, while stirring, some of the soup ; 
then pour the mixture in, all the time stirring, but do 
not let the soup boil again. 

TOMATO SOUP 

Put in a saucepan 1 quart can (or 3 pounds fresh) 
tomatoes (first scalded, if fresh), with 1 carrot and 1 
onion minced, and some thyme and laurel; cook 1 hour. 
Pass the whole through a strainer, add 1 quart stock or 
water, salt, and white and cayenne pepper. Pour in 
1 tablespoonful cornstarch mixed in a little cold water 
and add 1 tablespoonful butter. When ready to serve 
add 1 '/4 tablespoonf uls cooked rice. 

BEET SOUP 

Clean and mince 2 red beets, 1 onion, Ya cabbage ; 
put the whole in a saucepan with some butter, cook 
awhile, then add '/2 tablespoonful flour and 2 to 3 quarts 
stock ; cook 1 hour. Grate 1 red beet, press through a 
cloth, and when ready to serve pour the juice into the 
soup and add a glass of milk. 

CREAM OF FOWL 

Take 1 hen or chicken and cook for 2 hours in 2 
quarts of water with Yi veal or beef knuckle, 1 onion, 1 
carrot, and 1 stalk of celery. When the chicken is very 
tender, let it drip and strain the stock through a cloth. 
Remove chicken meat from bones, set the fillets (ten- 
derloins) aside, and pound the remainder of the flesh in 
a chopping bowl. To the pounded flesh add the stock 
little by little, while beating, and pass the resulting pulp 
through a strainer, to obtain a rich liquor. Melt in a 
saucepan 2 tablespoonf uls butter with I54 tablespoon- 



WHOLESOME COOKING: COLD RELISHES 



475 



f uls flour, into which pour the liquor ; let it become hot, 
but not boiUng. When ready to serve, add the chicken 
fillets, cut into small dices. 

CREAM OF CELERY 

Wash 5 stalks of celery, and let them boil in water 
5 minutes ; let drip, cool with cold water and let drip 
again. Chop the celery stalk», put them in saucepan 
with 2 tablespoonf uls butter and 3 tablespoonf uls flour, 
cook awhile, and add 2 to 3 quarts stock ; cook all to- 
getner fori hour; pass through strainer and heat liquor 
in saucepan. When ready to serve add a liaison made 
of 3 yolks, 1 glass cream, and 2 tablespoonfuls butter, 
taking care not to let it boil again. 

CREAM OF ASPARAGUS 

Proceed as for Cream of Celery, but use 3 bunches 
asparagus instead of celery. 

CREAM OF CAUI.IFl.OWER 

As for Cream of Celery, but use the white part of 
1 cauliflower. 

CARROT SOUP 

Cut 6 carrots in small dices and cook in saucepan 
with some butter and a chopped onion. Add, while stir- 
ring, 1 tablespoonful flour and 2 to 3 quarts stock or 
water, and cook slowly for 1 hour. Pass through a 
strainer, and when ready to serve add 1 tablespoonful 
butter and 1 !4 tablespoonfuls cooked rice. 

GREEN PEA SOUP 

As for White Kidney Bean Soup, but take fresh or 
dried peas instead of beans. Serve with fried dices of 
bread sprmkled over it. 

WHITE KIDNEY BEAN SOUP 

Cook 1 pint white kidney beans in salted water with 
1 sliced onion. When well cooked, strain. Heat in 
saucepan with 2 or 3 quarts stock or water, and when 



ready to serve add 2 tablespoonfuls butter. Serve hot 
with small pieces of dry toast. 

VEGETABLE SOUP 
Mince % cabbage, 1 carrot, 1 potato, J^ turnip, % 
onion and some celery ; wash and let drip. Put the 
minced vegetables in saucepan with 2 to 3 quarts water 
and a little salt ; boil for 1% hours. When ready to 
serve add 1 glass milk, 1 tablespoonful butter, and some 
pieces of toast. 

VELVET SOUP 

Boil 2 to 3 quarts of milk or stock, and add 1 table- 
spoonful cornstarch mixed with a glass of cold water, 
milk, or stock. Boil for 5 minutes; then add 2 whole 
eggs, beaten with 1 glass milk, and 2 tablespoonfuls 
butter. 

POTATO SOUP 

Fry 1^ minced onion until light brown, add 2 ito 4 
minced potatoes, and fry a little more. Add 2 quarts 
bouillon or water and boil for 20 minutes; strain, and 
put the puree back in the saucepan. When ready to 
serve, add 1 glass cream, mixed with 1 tablespoonful 
butter, not allowing the soup to boil again. 
CREAM OF PUMPKINS 

Cut in dices 1 inch square 3 to 4 pounds pumpkin; 
boil in water till tender; strain, and put the liquor in a 
saucepan with 4 tablespoonfuls butter, 1 teaspoonful 
sugar, and a little salt; heat, then add 2 quarts boiling 
water. Stir well, and serve with some fried toast. 
OYSTER SOUP 

Pour into kettle 1 quart boiling water; then 1 quart 
good rich milk; stir in 1 teacupful rolled cracker 
crumbs, seasoned with pepper and salt to taste. When 
all comes to aboil, add 1 quart good fresh oysters; stir 
well, so as to keep from scorching; lastly add butter 
the size of an egg; let it boil up once, remove from fire 
immediately, and serve. . 



RELISHES — COLD 

The relishes {hors d'ceuvres) are to be served more often at luucheons than at dinners, 
although a fashionable dinner must not lack some of them — or at least some of the cold ones 
Usually the cold relishes are placed on the table in advance. They should always be served in 
special and appropriate dishes of china or glass. (See also Salads, page 469.) 

SARDINES 

These should be taken from the box just before 
serving and laid gently on relish dish, with some of 
their own oil poured over them. 



RADISHES 

Radishes should be young and fresh. Trim off the 
end of the root and leave only enough of the leaves to 
permit of taking them easily with the fingers. 

OLIVES 

Olives should be very green, and served on relish 
dish. 



SMOKED OR DRIED MEAT OR FISH 

Should be sliced very thin, and the slices disposed 
in a circle, with some parsley in the middle. 



476 



WARM EELISHES, FISH 



CUCUMBER ,SAL,AD 

Pare and slice the cucumbers, sprinkling a little 
salt over them. After 10 minutes let drip, and mix 
with olive oil, pepper, and vinegar. 



OYSTERS 

Oysters should be opened just before serving and 
placed on the hollow shell, not on the flat one. Serve 
with lemons, cut in halves or quarters, not with vinegar. 



RELISHES — WARM 

The warm relishes belong rather to the restaurant than to the family dinner, but some are 
quite simple of preparation and are desirable for a fashionable dinner. They should be served 
when the guests are finishing their soup, and should be cooked just before serving; from which 
it follows that they are served with difficulty to more than eight or ten guests and are to be 
recommended for luncheon and tea parties rather than for regular dinners. 

CROQUETTES OF FOWL 

The flesh of fowls used to make soup stock may be 
utilized for croquettes. Remove the flesh of one fowl 
and chop fine, chopping also a few mushrooms and 
truffles (if obtainable) and a little parsley, and mix all 
together. Melt in saucepan 2 tablespoonfuls butter, 
mixed with 2 tablespoonfuls flour; add, little by little, 
while stirring, 2 glassfuls of stock. Boil, stirring con- 
stantly, until stock thickens a little ; then add the 
chopped fowl, stir and add two yolks, stirring until well 
mixed. 

Pour into a dish a layer 1 inch thick, and let cool, 
taking care to cover with buttered paper, to prevent 
drying and darkening of .surface. When cold, cut in 
squares 1x2 inches, roll in flour, and dip in beaten egg; 
roll again in bread or cracker crumbs ; fry in butter. 



FILLETS OF FOWL 

Remove the fillets and legs of 2 young chickens; 
cut the fillets in 3 and the legs in 3 pieces; dip them 
in milk, roll in flour or fine bread crumbs, and fry in 



butter. (The bodies of the chickens may be used in 
making stock, page 457.) 

FRIED OYSTERS 

Remove oysters from shell, dip in beaten egg, roll 
in bread or ci-acker crumbs, and fry in butter to a 
golden brown. 

RAMKINS 

Put in saucepan 1 glass water and .3 tablespoonfuls 
butter, let boil and while stirring add, little by little, 
3 tablespoonfuls flour. When thick enough, let cool a 
little on corner of range, and add, one by one, 4 eggs, 
beating mixture all the while. Add 6 ounces grated 
cheese, stir well and drop on a pie plate in the form of 
small cakes about I inch apart. Sprinkle over the little 
cakes 3 ounces cheese, cut into small dices; bake in hot 
oven until a light brown. 

FRIED TOMATOES 

Select smooth, large, green tomatoes, wash, but do 
not peel, and slice % inch thick. Roll in cracker dust 
or flour and fry in butter, salting and peppering well. 
Must be well browned on both sides and served hot. 



FISH 

(For Fish Sauces, see Page 461) 
Do not forget that the first requisite in a fish is absolute freshness, and that the tests of fresh- 
ness are bright scales and gills, full and prominent eyes, and firm, unyielding flesh. 



BOILED SALMON, TROUT, PIKE, ETC. 

Clean and wash fish, removing gills and fins, but 
leaving on tail and head ; place in fish kettle (having 
grate at bottom to remove without breaking) with 3 
carrots and 1 onion, sliced, some thyme and laurel, 6 
grains whole pepper, and enough water to cover. Bring 
to a boil and immediately place kettle on corner of 
range ; let simmer for 1 hour, without letting boil. 
Serve in long dish, on folded napkin, with whole boiled 
potatoes as garnish, or separate. Serve any desired 
fish sauce separately. 



STUFFED AND BAKED BASS, SHAD, 
FRESH COD, ETC. 

Mix bread, softened in boiling water, with 1 or 2 
tablespoonfuls of butter, salt, pepper and 3 raw eggs. 
Stuff and sew up fish, and place in dripping pan with 
water and a little butter. Bake 45 minutes. 

BROILED SALMON 

Sprinkle the steaks with salt, pepper, and a little 
olive oil; turn them two or three times, and broil 
over a moderate fire, taking care to turn from time to 



WHOLESOME COOKING : FISH, SHELL FISH 



477 



time. Sprinkle with the juice of Ve lemon, garnish 
with sixths of lemon, serving a maitre d'hotel or other 
fish sauce separately. 

FRIED BROOK TROUT 

Clean and wash the fish, dip in milk, roll in flour, 
and fry in butter slowly for about 15 minutes, turning 
often to prevent burning of butter or fish. Serve on a 
warm dish, sprinkle with hashed parsley, squeeze 
a lemon over the flsh and pour over them the butter in 
which they have been fried. 

PICKEREL, JEWISH STYLE 

Clean and wash a 5 or 6-pound fish and place in a 
kettle of ample size, with 3 or 4 sliced onions, 1 handful 
parsley, J4 pound butter, 1 pint white wine, 1 glassful 
stock, and some salt and pepper. Cover and cook 
slowly, while basting, for about 30 minutes. Take the 
flsh with care from the kettle and place on a warm 
dish ; then add, while stirring, about ]4 pound butter to 
the liquor, and pour it over the flsh. 

FRIED PERCH 

Clean and wash the flsh, dip whole in milk, and roll 
in flour. Bring fat or lard in skillet to such a heat that a 
little piece of bread dropped into it will brown instantly ; 
yet fat must not burn. In this fiy perch until well col- 
ored, and serve garnished with parsley and lemon. 

BOILED BLACK BASS WITH CHOPPED 
PARSLEY 

Clean and wash a 5 or 6-pound flsh; place on lower 
grate of flsh kettle, plunge in boiling salted water and 
keep boiling for 10 or 15 minutes, according to size; 
drip and place on warm dish; sprinkle with juice of a 
lemon and 2 tablespoonfuls melted butter, mixed with 
1 tablespoonful chopped parsley. Serve with boiled 
potatoes as garnish, or separate. 

BROILED BLACK BASS OR WHITEFISH 

Clean and wash the fish, divide lengthwise into 
two parts, place on dish and sprinkle with salt and 



pepper; also with 2 tablespoonfuls olive oil, to pre- 
vent sticking to broiler. Broil on moderate fire, turning 
from time to time. Sprinkle with a little lemon juice 
and serve with tartar sauce and sixths of lemon, or 
with maitre d'hotel sauce. 

BROILED EELS 

Clean and wash 3 or 4 pounds eels, remove skin, and 
cut in 3-inch lengths; put in saucepan with 2 quarts 
cold water, 1 glassful vinegar, 1 onion and 1 carrot 
sHced, some thyme, laurel, salt, and pepper. Bring to 
a boil; then let simmer for 15 minutes on corner of 
range. Let the pieces drip on cloth, dip in melted 
butter, roll in bread crumbs, and broil on light fire, 
turning from time to time. Serve with tartar sauce. 

BROILED SHAD ROE 

Handle carefully, so as not to break membrane 
containing roe; broil as for black bass, and serve with 
a maitre d'hotel sauce. 

FRIED FROGS' LEGS 

Skin the frogs, saving only the hind legs and quar- 
ters; let stand for 1 hour in cold water to whiten the 
flesh. Dip in milk, roll in flour, and fry in butter until 
well colored. Serve with quarters of lemon. 

SALT COD 

Freshen cod for 24 hours, changing water 4 or 5 
times; 1 hour before time to serve, place in a kettle with 
cold water; as soon as it boils remove to back of range 
and let simmer for 45 minutes. Serve on a warm dish, 
with caper sauce or generous lumps of butter (melted 
by heat of flsh) , and always with boiled potatoes. 

BOILED SALT MACKEREL 

Freshen over night, let drip, place in boiling water, 
and let cook 15 or 20 minutes, according to size; let 
drip, place in baking pan with pepper and lumps of 
butter, and bake in hot oven 10 or 15 minutes. Garnish 
with parsley. 



SHELL FISH 



FRIED OYSTERS (Entree) 
Drip oysters and dry on a cloth ; dip in beaten egg 
and roll in cracker dust; fry until a golden brown in 
butter or equal parts of butter and lard. Serve with 
garnish of peppergrass or cress, with a quarter of 
lemon for each guest. 

ESCALLOPED OYSTERS {Entree) 
Drip oysters and spread on a layer of bread crumbs 
in bottom of baking pan, pepper and salt, adding lumps 
of butter; spread another layer of crumbs and another 



of oysters, seasoning as before, and so continue, sprin- 
kling bread crumbs over the top. Cover with oyster 
liquor or milk (cream is better), and bake not more 
than 30 minutes. A glass of sherry, just before 
serving, improves the flavor for some palates. Serve 
hot in baking dish. 

"PIGS IN BLANKETS" (Entree) 

Choose large oysters, roll each in a very thin slice 
of bacon and pin with tiny wooden skewers ; fry brown 



478 



SAUCES FOU FI81I, EGGS 



on both sides in fat of bacon, and serve on small tri- 
angles of toast, with garnish of parsley. 

ESCAI.L,OPED CLAMS (Entree) 
Same as for Escalloped Oysters, only that clams 
should be chopped, and a suspicion of mace or nutmeg 
should be added to other seasoning. 

DEVILED CRABS (Entree) 
Remove meat from as many boiled crabs as there 
are guests, carefully preserving shells intact; mix meat 
with bread crumbs (1 cup to 6 crabs), mustard (1 tea- 
spoonful to 6) , butter (1 rounding tablespoonf ul to 6), and 
strong vinegar (2 teaspoonfuls to 6); salt and pepper to 
taste; mix well, fill shells with the forcemeat, and bake 
10 minutes. Serve with garnish of lettuce. 

FRIED SOFT SHELL CRABS 

Crabs should be cooked immediately, and by no 
means should be kept over night after being taken 
from the water. Pull oft spongy substance from sides 
and remove mouth and eyes; wash thoroughly and fry 
until brown in hot butter and lard (half and half). If 
preferred, dip in beaten eggs and roll in bread or 
cracker crumbs. 

BROILED LOBSTER 

Cut lobster in two lengthwise; place halves on a 
dish; pour over it 2 tablespoonf uls olive oil, salted and 
peppered; broil on moderate fire for about 30 minutes, 
turning from time to time; serve with green parsley 
garnish, and sauce (tartar or mayonnaise) separate. 

COLD BOILED LOBSTER 

Choose heavy live lobster, wash and brush thor- 
oughly, tie claws and tail with twine, and plunge into 
kettle of boiling salted water. Let boil awhile; then 
let simmer for 30 minutes on corner of range. Drip 
and cool. Serve with tartar or mayonnaise sauce. 

SAUCES FOR FISH 
Hollandaise Sauce — Place in saucepan on back 
of range J4 pound butter, into which 2 tablespoonfuls 



flour have been mixed with wooden spoon ; add juice 
of 1 lemon, a little salt and pepper (and a little nutmeg, 
if liked), and 1 glass water ; stir until liquor becomes 
uniform, and while stirring add 3 yolks, and then, in 
small pieces, about 14 pound butter. At no time permit 
sauce to boil. Serve apart. 

Caper Sauce — As for Hollandaise Sauce, with the 
addition of 2 tablespoonfuls pickled capers when ready \ 
to serve. 

Butter and Parsley Sawce (Maitre d' Hotel) — . 
Mix chopped parsley thoroughly with cold, unmelted 
butter. Lay this in lumps over fish or meat, to he 
melted l)y the heat of same. 

Mayonnaise Sauce — Beat 2 yolks with some salt 
and pepper ; then add, drop by drop, while stirring, 
about % pint olive oil ; still stirring, add, little by little, 
1 tablespoonful white or cider vinegar. If this sauce is 
made as it should be, in a cold dish (preferably set in 
cracked ice) and a cold room, the vinegar will form a 
ci'eamy emulsion with the oil ; yet its compounding will 
require practice. 

Tartar Sauce — As for Mayonnaise Sauce, but 
when ready to serve add 2 tablespoonfuls chopped green 
onion and gherkins. 

Mustard Sauce — Melt in saucepan 2 tablespoon- 
fuls butter mixed with 1 tablespoonful flour, and while 
stirring add 1 glass warm water, 2 tablespoonfuls mus- 
tard, and some salt and pepper. Boil until quite thick 
and serve apart. 

Tomato Sauce — Chop 1 onion and let brown in 
1 tablespoonful butter; add 3 tablespoonfuls tomato 
catsup and 2 tablespoonfuls butter and hashed parsley ; 
stir well and pour over the fish. 

Vinegar Sauce — Chop J4 handful parsley and the 
same amount of onion, cut 12 gherkins in small dices, 
and put all in a bowl with 1 small glass each of olive 
oil and vinegar ; salt and pepper to taste and mix 
thoroughly. 

Horse-radish Sauce — Grate 2 or 3 roots horse- 
radish ; put in a bowl with a little salt and white pep- 
per, and pour over it 1 glassful vinegar. 



EGGS 



HARD-BOILED EGGS 

Cook the eggs for 10 minutes in boiling water, then 
dip in cold water. 

EGGS WITH CREAM 

Slice or cut in quarters 10 hard-boiled eggs and 
place in saucepan. In another saucepan brown lightly 
in a little butter 1 chopped onion ; sprinkle over it 2 table- 
spoonfuls flour, add 1 pint milk, and cook, while stirring. 



for about 5 minutes. Pour this cream over the eggs, 
warm the whole without allowing to boil, and when 
ready to serve, place in deep di.sh and sprinkle with 
hashed parsley 

EGGS A LA TZARINE 
Cut pieces of bread from which the crust has been 
removed into cylinders 3 inches in diameter and 3 inches 
in height. Make in the middle of each a hole 1 Vi inches in 



WHOLESOME COOKING : EGGS, MEATS 



479 



diameter and 3 inches deep. Brown cylinders in butter ; 
when crisp, break an egg in every hole, sprinkle with 
salt and pepper, place 1 teaspoonf ul butter on each egg, 
and bake for 5 minutes in a buttered dish. 

SHIRRED EGGS 

Butter as many small dishes as there are guests; 
break eggs, one at a time, in a saucer; slip them into the 
small dishes, sprinkle with salt and pepper, cook 5 min- 
utes in a hot oven, and serve on the same dishes. 

SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH TOAST 

Break 10 eggs, one at a time, and slip them into a 
saucepan; beat up with J4 pound butter, and salt and 
pepper to taste; then cook over a light fire, stirring 
constantly, for 5 minutes. When batter becomes quite 
thick, serve in shallow dish, with fried toast on and 
around the eggs. 

SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH CHEESE 

As for Scrambled Eggs with Toast, but add %i pound 
grated cheese while mixing the eggs with butter. 



SCRAMBLED 



ASPARAGUS 



EGGS WITH 
TOPS 

Cut the tender tops of asparagus in V2-inch pieces, 
cook in salted water for 10 minutes, and let drip. Pre- 
pare the eggs as to serve with toast; when quite cooked 
add the asparagus and mix well with a wooden spoon. 
Serve in a shallow dish with toast. 

OMELETS 

In making an omelet, care should be taken that the 
pan Is clean, smooth, and hot, as otherwise the omelet 
will stick. If one has had no experience in making this 
dish, it would be well to experiment on small omelets. 

PLAIN OMELET WITH HASHED PARSLEY 

Break 10 eggs, one at a time, slipping into a salad 
dish as soon as each is ascertained to be fresh; beat 



well, together with salt, pepper, and ]4 handful of 
hashed parsley, also 1 glass milk, if wished. Melt 14 
pound butter in frying pan on hot flre, and when butter 
is hot, pour in eggs and stir with fork until mixture 
becomes quite thick. Tip the pan, holding it by the 
handle and shaking, so as to bring the omelet near one 
of the edges and begin to fold it. If necessary, use a 
knife or pancake turner to finish folding it double, but 
properly, tlie omelet should not be touched, 
but should be folded in the act of turning the frying 
pan over the warm dish in which it is to be served. A 
good omelet should be long, thick in the middle, and 
soft inside. 

DEVILED EGGS 

Boil eggs hard and cut lengthwise, remove the 
yolks and mash them with salt, pepper, celery salt, a 
little butter, and a little mixed mustard, adding enough 
vinegar to make the mixture stick together. Return 
this paste to the cavities in the whites and serve cold, 
with garnish of parsley. 

ESCALLOPED EGGS 

Chop fine some ham and bread, adding salt and 
pepper to taste; add 1 tablespoonful melted butter and 
reduce to the consistency of soft paste by addition of 
milk; half fill individual baking dishes with forcemeat 
and carefully slip an egg from the dish into which it 
was broken on the top of each ; sprinkle with cracker 
dust, add salt and pepper for egg, bake 10 minutes, 
and serve hot with Maitre d'Hotel sauce (page 461). 

SCOTCH EGGS 

Boil the eggs as lightly as will permit of removing 
shells without breaking whites ; remove shells and 
cover eggs (which will flatten out somewhat as they lie 
on their sides) with forcemeat made of minced ham or 
bacon, bread crumbs, and parsley, bound together with 
the yolk of an egg. Fry to a golden brown and serve 
hot, garnished with parsley or cress. 



MEATS 

(For Meat Sauces, see Page 467) 

The meats are ordinarily classified as Releves, Entrees, and Roasts. 

Releves, which usually appear only at a great dinner (after the fish), are highly seasoned 
meat dishes, intended to sharpen the appetite. They consist of rather large pieces of meat, 
roasted or baked, brought to the table or sideboard entire, garnished and accompanied by a sauce, 
and carved immediately before the individual portions are served. In all particulars except sea- 
soning the releve is similar to a roast. 

Entrees are meats reduced to serving size before being cooked ; they may be broiled, 
roasted, boiled, or stewed, but always are served with a sauce (or gravy) and some vegetable as a 



480 



NOTES ON MEATS, BEEF 



garnish. They are essentially family dishes, but are also served at most dinners, however fashion- 
able, being presented after the releve (if there is one). 

Roasts are whole roasted pieces of meat, served with a salad after the entree and its accom- 
panying side dishes (vegetables), and before the sweet dishes. 

The meats should be carved in the kitchen, but the parts put together in a way to represent 
the whole piece ; they should be distributed by the host or hostess, or, better, the dish should be 
presented at the left of every guest, so that each may serve himself, with the right hand, according 
to his taste. 

GENERAL NOTES ON MEATS 

The quick application of a high degree of heat sears over the cut surfaces of the meat-pores 
and prevents the loss of the juices. Therefore : 

Meats roasted, should be popped into a hot oven. 

Meats broiled should be held at first as close as is safe to a hot bed of coals. 

Meats boiled should be plunged into boiling' water. 

Contrariwise, to extract the juices, as for soups, meat must be placed in cold water and grad- 
ually brought to a boil. 

Meats should boil gently, if they are to be tender and of even flavor. 

The addition of a couple of tablespoonfuls of vinegar in the pot will go far to make tender a 
tough piece of meat boiled. 

A large ham requires at least four hours' boiling ; a small one, two hours. 

Meats fried or broiled (or even roasted) are better for searing over before salting. 

Sticking a fork in meat already seared over permits the escape of the juices. 

Meats should be fried always in butter; never in lard. 

All fillets (tenderloins) should be cut across the grain, set on end (cut fibers setting on the 
block), and smashed with the flat of the cleaver. Otherwise they will be leathery. 



ROAST BEEF {Releve or Roast) 

Place the meat (loin or foreribs of beef) in roasting 
pan; sprinkle with salt; add a cup of water and roast 
in hot oven, allowing 15 minutes to the pound. Baste 
frequently. When well cooked, roast will be firm when 
pressed with the finger. 

After removing roast from pan, add 1 cup stock or 
water; boil, while stirring, for a minute or two; skim 
off floating grease and pass the gravy through a strainer. 
This gravy is considered best to serve with roast beef, 
but if thickened gravy is desired, see page 467. 

Roast beef, when served as a releve, should be 
accompanied by a vegetable as a garnish, preferably 
potatoes fried in butter, stuffed tomatoes, or others 
similarly cooked. If served as a roast, it should be 
accompanied by a salad. 

BOAST TENDERLOIN (Roast) 

As for Roast Beef, but roast not quite so long in 
proportion to weight. 



BRAISED TENDERLOIN. JARDINIERE 

(Releve) 
Lard the tenderloin with bacon strips J4 inch thick ; 
place in roasting pan and sprinkle with salt; add, in 
pan, 2 onions and 1 carrot, sliced, 3 cupfuls stock, and 
1 cupful Madeira; baste frequently, allowing 15 minutes 
to the pound. Make gravy same as for roast beef; 
serve with Jardiniere Garnish (page 467). 

BROILED STEAK (Entree) 
Have steaks cut 1 inch thick, and divide into indi- 
vidual portions before cooking. Broil on bright fire 
5 minutes; then turn and broil other side about 5 min- 
utes; put them on warm dish, and place on each 1 tea- 
spoonful butter mixed with chopped parsley. 

BEEF SAUTE (Entree) 

Slice tenderloin or other steak in pieces the size of 

a half-dollar, but twice as thick ; brown 1 chopped onion 

in butter ; add sliced meat and fry for about 5 minutes ; 

sprinkle with a little flour and add a cupful of cream 



WHOLESOME COOKING : MEATS 



481 



and a tablespoonful of Worcestershire sauce to the 
pound of meat. Add some chopped parsley, cook 
awhile, and serve in a warm shallow dish. 

TENDERLOIN WITH GREEN PEAS (Entree) 
Slice tenderloin about 1 inch thick, brown in butter 
in shallow stewpan 5 to 10 minutes ; place on dish and 
keep in warm place. Add in the pan 1 scant tablespoon- 
ful flour and i4 glassful stock or water; boil awhile and 
pour this sauce over the tenderloin ; serve with French 
peas (page 410) in separate dish. 

TENDERLOIN STEAK WITH MUSHROOMS 

(Entree) 
Same as for Tenderloin with Green Peas, but add 
in the pan ^-pound can of mushrooms, sliced in their 
own juice, and 1 tablespoonful tlour. Brown awhile and 
pour over tenderloin. 

TENDERLOIN STEAK A L'AMERICAINE 

(Entree) 

Same as for Tenderloin with Green Peas, but pour 

into the same pan 4 tablespoonfuls tomato catsup, 

2 tablespoonfuls Worcestershire sauce, and 1 cupful 

stock ; boil for 5 minutes and pour over tenderloin steak. 

MINCED BEEF (Entree) 
Slice 2 pounds boiled beef quite fine ; place in shal- 
low dish ; fiy 1 chopped onion in butter 5 minutes, 
sprinkle over it some chopped parsley and 1 tablespoon- 
ful tlour ; stir, and add 1 glassful white wine and 1 
glassful stock. Boil awhile and pour over the beef. 
Sprinkle with bread crumbs and bake 15 minutes. 

BEEFSTEAK SMOTHERED IN ONIONS 

(Entree) 

Put a generous piece of butter in a hot frying pan ; 

then a thick layer of sliced onions; when these are 

slightly browned, add the steak, and cover with more 

sliced onions; turn often until done, seasoning to taste. 

POT ROAST OF BEEF (Family Roast) 
Fry a generous piece of suet in a kettle for a few 
minutes; sprinkle a lean piece of beef with fiour, salt, 
and pepper (a cheap cut of meat may be used for this 
purpose) ; put in the pot and fry until brown on all 
sides; pour in water to half cover the beef; cover 
tightly and cook until tender, adding a little water at 
intervals to prevent burning. Thicken the gravy with 
flour and serve apart. 

Or, put good-sized piece of suet in kettle and add 
enough water to half cover roast when it shall be put 
in; salt the water, add 2 tablespoonfuls vinegar, and 
bring to aboil. When boiling, drop in the beef. Let 
boil 10 minutes to the pound; then remove cover and 



boil down until beef is sizzling in the grease; let fry, 
turning over and over, until brown on all sides; make 
gravy in kettle, and serve it apart. By learning the 
proper time to remove cover and boil down, beef may 
be pot-roasted as rarely or as thoroughly as desired. 

COLD SALTED OR SMOKED TONGUE 

(Entree) 
Freshen a beef tongue in cold water for about 4 
hours, changing water at least 4 times; place in kettle 
with enough cold water to cover; add 3 carrots, 2 
onions, and 1 stalk of celery, all sliced; cook 4 hours; 
dip in cold water, skin it, and serve cold for breakfast, 
luncheon, or picnic. 

CREAMED DRIED BEEF (Entree) 
Brown 1 tablespoonful butter in frying pan; put in 
Vt pound chipped beef and heat thoroughly; pour in 
about 1 cup of milk and thicken with a little flour and 
water; scrambled eggs around the dish make an excel- 
lent addition. 

BEEF CROQUETTES (Entree) 
Chop 2 pounds boiled beef very fine; brown 3 
chopped onions in 2 tablespoonfuls butter; mix with the 
chopped meat 6 chopped boiled potatoes, 3 raw eggs, 
salt, and pepper, and divide into croquettes about. 4 
inches long and I'/i inches in diameter; roll in flour and 
fry. Serve with tomato sauce apart. 

MOCK DUCK (Entree) 
Salt and pepper both sides of a round steak; pre- 
pare stuffing as for duck and spread upon the steak; 
roll it up and tie; roast for J^ hour; serve with Maitre 
d'Hotel sauce (page 461) poi,. ' over it. 

STUFFED BEEF HEART (Fcimily Roast) 
Boil heart 3 hours over slow Are; make dressing by 
mixing 3 cups bread cruml^s, ^ cup minced salt pork; 
pepper, sage, and onion to taste; enlarge cavity in 
cooked heart, fill w-ith dressing, and place in roasting 
pan with liquor in which boiled; bake 30 or 25 minutes. 
Make rich gravy, which serve apart. 

BEEF LOAF— VEAL LOAF (Entrees) 
Chop fine 3 pounds rare beef or veal (left over from 
roast), with Vs pound salt pork; add small cupful 
cracker crumbs, 3 tablespoonfuls milk, and 3 beaten 
eggs; salt and pepper to taste, mix well, form into a 
loaf, over which pour Vj pint water; bake about 1 hour 
and set aside to cool; serve sliced, with garnish of 
parsley. 

ROAST LOIN OF A EAL (Roast) 

Remove kidney and kidney fat, unless kidney roast 
is preferred; stuff if desired, roll lengthwise and tie 



482 



VEAL, MUTTON, LAMB 



with twine. Place in a pan with 1 onion and 1 carrot 

sliced; sprinkle with salt, add 1 glassful water, and 

bake in hot oven, allowing 18 or 30 minutes to the pound 

and basting frequently. Cut off the twine and serve in 

a warm dish, with thick gravy made the same as for 

roast beef. 

VEAL, POTPIE (Entree) 

Cut 2 pounds veal ribs in pieces 1 inch square, and 
place in pot (upon a small plate, to prevent burning) 
with 2 quarts cold water; boil for 1 labours; then make 
biscuit dough of 3 cups flour, and half an hour before 
serving drop small lumps of the dough into the pot, 
which must still contain sufficient water to entirely 
cover the meat; cover and boil for 20 or 25 minutes. 
Serve with mashed potatoes apart. 

VEAIi A LA BOURGEOISE (Entree) 
Place 3 or 4 pounds chump end of veal in a stewpan 
with 2 tablespoonfuls butter ; brown awhile and add 2 
glassfuls stock or water, 6 carrots cut in quarters, and 
12 small onions. Cook slowly, basting occasionally, for 
l'/4 hours. Serve with a vegetable as garnish, skimming 
floating grease from gravy and serving latter apart. 

BROILED VEAL, CHOP.S (Entree) 

Dip the chops in melted butter, roll in bread crumbs, 
and let them brown over a slow fire. Serve on warm 
dish, placing on each chop a little .chopped parsley 
mixed with butter. 

VEAL CHOPS WITH FRENCH PEAS (Entree) 
Melt 54 pound butter in shallow stewpan, and fry the 
chops about 20 minutes, turninf frequently. Serve on 
warm dish, pouring over " ps the gravy in which they 
were fried, with Freucu peas (page 4V0) served apart. 
Spinach (page 471) may be served instead of peas. 

VEAL CHOPS WITH MUSHROOMS {Eiiirt'e) 

Same as foregoing, but after placing chops in warm 
dish, add in saucepan 2 tablespoonfuls flour, stir well, 
add Yi glass white wine, and 14-pound can mushrooms 
(minced) with their juice; boil awhile, and pour over 
the chops. 

SMALL PARISIAN PATTIES 

Chop X pound veal trimmings and Vt pound kidney 
fat, first separately and then together; mix with 2 eggs 
and %^ handful chopped parsley ; salt to taste. Roll puff- 
paste (see page 476) quite thin and cut with circular 
cutter 3 inches in diameter; roll the paste trimmings 
thinner than before and cut same number of pieces with 
same cutter. Place the thicker pieces on baking dish, 
and on each some of the chopped veal (pieces the size 
of a walnut), cover with the thinner pieces of paste. 



moistening the edges of under and upper crust; brush 
with beaten egg and bake until well colored. 

CALF'S LIVER WITH PARSLEY (Entree) 

Slice liver in pieces the size of the hand and % inch 

thick; fry in butter or bacon fat; when ready to serve, 

sprinkle with chopped parsley and serve in a warm dish, 

pouring over slices gravy in which they have been fried. 

SWEETBREADS WITH SPINACH (Entree) 
Freshen sweetbreads for 1 hour in cold water; dip 
5 minutes in boiling water, and then in cold water; let 
drip well; place in shallow stewpan, adding for each 
pound of sweetbreads '/2 onion, 54 carrot, both sliced, 
and Vi glassful stock; bake 1 hour in hot oven, basting 
frequently; serve in warm dish, pouring over the sweet- 
breads the sauce in which they have been baked, having 
first skimmed off grease and strained it. Serve spinach 
(page 471) separately. Instead of the spinach, tomato 
sauce (page 467) may be served separately. 

SADDLE OF MUTTON ROASTED (Roast) 
Trim off the fat and remove the membranous skin 
that covers the back of the saddle; place in baking pan, 
sprinkle with salt, add 1 glassful water and roast in hot 
oven, allowing 18 to 20 minutes to the pound. Serve 
with potatoes fried in butter as garnish, and gravy in 
gravy dish. 

LEG OF MUTTON A LA FRANCAISE (Roast) 

Remove outer skin and place in roasting pan; 

sprinkle with salt, add 1 glass water, and roast in hot 

oven, allowing 18 to 20 minutes to the pound; baste 

frequently. Serve with potatoes fried in butter, or a 

BOILED LEG OF MUTTON (Entree) 
Prepare the same as for foregoing; then tie leg in 
napkin and place in kettle of boiling salted water; let 
boil steadily 15 minutes for each pound; serve with 
boiled potatoes in a dish apart. Leg may also be served 
with caper sauce (page 461). 

IRISH STEW (Entree) 
Cut mutton brisket in pieces one-half the size of 
the hand; place in a stewpan, add water to cover well, 
and skim while boiling, having added a few small onions 
and a small bunch of parsley, tied. Cook half an hour; 
add 3 tablespoonfuls flour beaten with 2 glassfuls stock 
or water, and some potatoes cut in halves or quarters; 
then cook again for half an hour. 

LEG OF LAMB WITH MINT SAUCE (Roast) 
Roast same as Leg of Mutton a la Franpaise and 
serve with mint sauce (page 467) in a separate «*ish. 



WHOLESOME COOKING: MEATS 



483 



STUFFED SHOULDER OF MUTTON (Roast or 
Entree) 
Remove bones, and stuff with dressing made as 
follows: Brown 1 chopped onion in butter, mix with 
H pint bread crumbs wet with Vs pint millf , add )i hand- 
ful chopped parsley and 1 pound sausage meat chopped 
fine; mix well. Roast the same as roast beef; serve 
with potatoes fried in butter or mashed. 

FRENCH MUTTON CHOPS BROILED (Entree) 
ENGLISH MUTTON CHOPS BROILED (Entree) 

French chops are small rib chops, the end of the 
bone having been trimmed off, and the fat cut away 
from the end, leaving the round piece of meat attached 
to one end of the bone. English chops are thicker than 
the French, and are cut from the loin or tenderloin and 
trimmed into good shape. 

Bi'oil the chops on a bright fire, turning frequently. 
Serve with potatoes fried in butter, mashed potatoes, 
or French peas (page 470). 

ROAST PORK (Roast) 

Prepared and I'oasted the same as for roast beef 
(page 463), but add a little pepper and season with sage 
if desired. 

PORK CHOPS BROILED, WITH TOMATO 
SAUCE (Entree) 
Dip the chops in melted butter or beaten egg, roll in 
bread or cracker crumbs and fry until well done (pork 
chops grilled, owing to the necessity for thorough cook- 
ing, being " broiled " only in name). Salt and pepper to 
taste, and serve with tomato sauce in separate dish. 

BOILED PIGS' FEET (Entree) 
Clean feet thoroughly and cook until bones will slip 
out, using cold water if salted feet are used, hot water 
if fresh ; boil down, remove bones, and cut in 2-inch 
lengths ; salt and pepper to taste, and pour with liquor 
into shallow dish ; let cool to jelly and cut in slices ; 
serve with garnish of cress, peppergrass, or parsley. 

BROILED PIGS' FEET (Entree) 
Wash and clean 6 to 8 feet; place in kettle with 
2 onions, 2 carrots, and 1 celery stalk, sliced, and some 
thyme and laurel. Cover with cold water and cook for 
about 4 hours, or until tender; cut them in two length- 
wise (after cooking), dip in butter, roU in bread crumbs, 
and broil 10 to 15 minutes. Serve with mustard and 
mashed potatoes for breakfast or luncheon. 

SUGAR-ROAST OF HAM (Roast) 
Freshen ham for 10 hours, entirely cover with 
water in kettle, and boil until tender. Let drip, remove 
rind, and sprinkle well with flour and coffee sugar or 



brown sugar (equal parts) ; stick full of cloves, about an 
inch apart, and roast until a coffee brown; garnish with 
parsley and serve either hot or cold. 

ROAST SPARERIB (Family Roast) 
Trim ribs closely and chop in Cinch lengths; place in 
roasting pan, dredge with flour, sprinkle with pepper, 
salt, and sage, add 1 cup water, and roast, basting fre- 
quently, until tender and brown. Thicken gravy with 
flour, and serve with baked apple or apple sauce and 
nnistard .sauce (which .see). Mashed potato and mashed 
turnips should be served in side di.shes. 

FRIED SALT PORK WITH CREAM SAUCE 

(Entree) 
Slice thin fat salt pork, drop into boiling water in 
skillet and allow to freshen for 3 minutes ; pour off 
water, let drip and roll in flour ; fry in skillet to a golden 
brown ; lay on hot platter. Into fat in skillet pour }^ 
pint cream or milk, stir in flour and water to thicken ; 
let come to a boil, and pour over pork. Serve with 
baked potatoes for breakfast. 

NEW^ ENGLAND BOILED DINNER (Entree) 
Take a good-sized piece of corned beef and smaller 
pieces of salt pork and ham, cover with cold water, and 
cook over a moderately slow fire until nearly done; add 
potatoes, onions, turnips, and carrots, and continue to 
cook until vegetables are done. Have cooking in sepa- 
rate stewpans a cabbage, quartered, and beets. Gar- 
nish the meats with all the vegetables except the cab- 
bage, which serve as side dish. Provide sharp cider 
vinegar and sour, sharp mustard. 

HEAD CHEESE (Entree) 
Take 1 pig's head, clean and wash thoroughly, re- 
moving eyes, and digging out internal ears and nostrils; 
singe, wash again, and cut in pieces as small as possible, 
removing tongue, which should be left whole. Put in 
pot with 4 pig's feet, well cleaned, and 3 pounds neck 
beef. Boil all together until bones slip out. Remove 
bones, salt and pepper to taste, and chop very coarsely. 
Place in molds, or deep, square tin pans, into one of 
which the whole tongue, after skinning, should be put. 
Cover, with weights to give pressure, and when cold 
slice and serve with garnish of cress, peppergrass, or 
parsley. , 

RABBIT SAUTE (Entree) 

Skin and clean the rabbit, and cut in pieces the size 
of an egg; melt in a saucepan 3 tablespoonfuls butter; 
add the rabbit, with 2 onions, chopped, X handful 
parsley, chopped; sprinkle with salt and pepper and 
cook covered for about 50 minutes. Add juice of % 
lemon and serve for breakfast or luncheon. 



484 



SAUCES AND GARNISHES FOR MEATS 



KIDNEY SAUTE (Entree) 
Slice kidneys, place in cold water, bring to a boil, 
place again in cold water, bring again to a boil, pour off 
water and rinse in hot water ; let fry in butter in skillet, 
dredging with flour ; when browned, add J^ glassful 
stock and (if desired) J^ glassful Madeira, boil awhile, 
sprinkle with hashed parsley and serve in warm, shal- 
low dish. 

VEAL, KIDNEYS BROILED (Entree) 
Cut each kidney lengthwise in such a way as to 
open it but not to divide entirely ; pass two wooden skew- 
ers through them to keep them flat ; sprinkle with salt 
and pepper, dip in melted butter, and broil on bright 
fire ; serve with Maitre d'Hotel sauce, page 461 (to 
which add a little lemon juice) or mustard sauce. 

SAUCES FOB MEATS 

Gravy— After removing meat from pan, skim off 
any excess of fat, and set pan on range; scrape sides 
and bottom of pan, and after browning as much as may 
be without burning, add a little water and let boil up. 
Thicken, by gradually pouring in, while stirring, a cold 
paste of flour and water. 

For boiled meats, make drawn butter sauce, thus: 
Melt 2 tablespoonf uls butter in saucepan ; pour in 1 y^ 
cups boiling water, or equal parts boiling water and 
milk; mix 1 tablespoonf ul flour in a little cold milk, 
which add, stirring constantly. To this sauce add 
capers, parsley, etc., if desired, according to kind of 
meat with which sauce is to be served. 

Bearnaise Sauce (Yelloic) — Place in saucepan 
X glass white vinegar, witli 1 tablespoonful butter, 1 
onion, and a little pepper; boil on bright fire until vine- 
gar is half boiled down ; set on back of range, and add, 
while stirring, a little butter and 3 yolks; place sauce- 
pan in another larger one, half full of boiling water, 
and add, little by little, while stirring, 2 tablespoonfuls 
butter; cook until quite thick. 

Soubise Sauce (White) — Feel and slice 12 on- 
ions, and cook for 15 minutes in boiling water; drip; 
dip in cold water; drip again; melt in saucepan 2 table- 
spoonfuls butter mixed with 2 tablespoonfuls flour, and 
add, while stirring, 1 pint water; as soon as it boils, add 
onions and cook whole slowly 30 minutes; strain, and 
serve separately with steaks and chops. 



Tomato Sauce (Red) — Slice 2 onions and 2 car- 
rots quite fine ; cut in dices about 1 pound cold boiled ham 
(or omit if wished), cook 5 minutes with 1 tablespoonful 
butter in saucepan; clean and slice 12 ripe tomatoes, 
add them in saucepan with 1 glassful stock, some 
thyme, laurel, salt, and pepper, and cook about 1 hour; 
strain into another saucepan with 2 tablespoonfuls but- 
ter; warm, and when ready to serve add, while stirring, 
2 tablespoonfuls cornstarch, mixed with a little stock 
or water; add a little cayenne pepper and serve sepa- 
rately. 

Pepper Sauce (Bn-own) — Melt in saucepan 1 
tablespoonful butter; add 1 onion and 1 carrot finely 
chopped; cook 5 minutes, sprinkle with 1 tablespoon- 
ful flour, stir well, and add 1 glassful vinegar, 1 of stock, 
and high seasoning of thyme, laurel, salt, and pepper; 
cook slowly Vi hour; strain, add cayenne pepper, and 
serve separately, or pour over meat. For Sauce Piquant 
(brown) add 6 gherkins, sliced fine. 

Mint Sauce (Green) — Chop 1 handful mint 
leaves, mix with '/2 glassful vinegar and 1 tablespoonful 
sugar ; serve with leg of mutton or lamb. 

GARNISHES FOR MEATS 

Jardiniere Garnish — Fry from 2 to 4 potatoes 
in butter, and cook a number of other vegetables (as 
green peas, green beans, small carrots, cauliflower, cut 
in pieces the size of a hazel nut, etc.) separately in 
boiling water, afterward frying separately in butter. 
Place tenderloin or loin on platter, a potato at each 
end and on each side, and the other vegetables arranged 
around the meat according to color effect. 

Nivernaise Garnish — This garnish serves for 
veal loin, tenderloin, or saddle of mutton. Wash anf* 
pare 1 quart small carrots; place in saucepan withl 
glassful stock and 2 tablespoonfuls butter; cook until 
tender and when ready to serve, add 2 tablespoonfuls 
butter. 

Brfetonne Garnish — This garnish serves for leg 
or shoulder of mutton. Soak 1 pound kidney beans in 
cold water about 4 hours. Drip, and cook in salted 
water until tender; when ready to serve, chop 1 onion 
and brown in 1 tablespoonful butter; add the beans, 
dripped ; stir, and add 2 tablespoonfuls butter ; sprinkle 
with some chopped parsley, and serve with individual 
portions of meat. 



POULTRY 

GENERAL REMARKS 

Select youug fowls, as a rule, for roasting. Older birds .should be .served only in fricassee oi 
boiled. Remove feathers carefully, without scalding ; clean and wash the inside thoroughly; 



WHOLESOME COOKING: POULTRY 



485 



singe with a burning newspaper on top of the range, and tie legs and wings to the body before 
roasting. In removing giblets care must be talien not to break the gall-bladder in cutting it away 
from the liver. 



ROAST TURKEY (Roast) 
Place turkey in roasting pan, rub it with about 
2 tablespoon fuls butter, add 1 glassful water, and i-oast, 
allowing 15 minutes to the pound. Make gravy same as 
for roast beef. Instead of rubbing with butter, if 
desired, a few thin slices of bacon may be bound with 
twine on breast. If desired, before placing in roasting 
pan, stuff with dressing made of bread crumbs moistened 
with scalding water, adding a lump of butter the size of 
a walnut, salting and peppering, and seasoning with a 
chopped onion and sage to taste; or, with thyme, sweet 
marjoram, summer savory, mace, or nutmeg. With 
salt and pepper alone for seasoning, oysters, chopped 
or whole, may be added, and in any case, dressing 
should be mixed up with a beaten egg 

TURKEY GIBLETS (Entree) 
Brown giblets (wings, gizzard, liver, etc.) in sauce- 
pan with 1 pound bacon cut in dices; sprinkle with 
1 tablespoonful flour, and add 1 glassful water and 
1 glassful stock, or 1 pint water, some salt and pepper, 
1^ handful parsley tied, 10 or 12 small onions, 3 carrots 
cut in quarters lengthwise and then in thirds crosswise; 
cook slowl3' 1 34 hours ; skim off floating grease, and serve 
in shallow dish for breakfast only. 

ROAST CHICKEN (Roast) 

Prepare and roast the same as for turkey. 
BROILED CHICKEN (Entree) 

Cut chicken in two lengthwise, dip in melted butter, 
and broil on both sides over bright fire until thoroughly 
cooked. Serve for breakfast or luncheon. 
FRIED CHICKEN (Entree) 

Cut each chicken in about 8 pieces; sprinkle with 
salt and pepper, dip the pieces in milk, roll in flour, and 
fry in fat until well colored. Serve with parsley fried in 
same fat, and a lemon cut in fifths, lengthwise. 
CHICKEN PIE (Entree) 

Cut 1- chicken in pieces, place in stewpan. cover 
with water, and boil until tender ; when half cooked, 
add 1 teaspoonful salt. Remove chicken, placing in 
warming oven, and thicken gravy with 1 tablespoonful 
flour ; salt and pepper to taste, add lump of butter the 
size of a walnut, and boil 5 minutes. While chicken is 
cooking for the first time, following paste should be 
prepared : Mix, as for biscuit, 3 cups flour, 2 teaspoon- 
fuls baking powder, a dash of salt, and M cup butter ; 
roll out half of this to a thickness of H inch, and with 



it line a baking dish, letting crust hang over the edge: 
enough to turn up over top crust ; put in chicken and 
gravj ; roll remainder of paste for top crust ; slash in 
the center to permit escape of steam, moisten top crust 
around edge, turn up overhanging lower crust, and 
pinch tightly ; butter the top, and bake until a light 
brown. 

SPRING CHICKEN SAUTE (Entree) 

Remove legs and cut them in two; take off wings, 
but not the fillets; cut body in two lengthwise, between 
back and breast; then each half in two crosswise, 
and again the breast in two lengthwise. Brown one 
chopped onion in J4 pound butter, and add chicken; 
sprinkle with salt and pepper, and fry on bright fire 15 
to 20 minutes; sprinkle with chopped parsley and serve 
hot. 

CHICKEN FRICASSEE (Entree) 

Prepare and cut chicken same as for preceding; 
soak in cold water 15 minutes; place in stewpan with 
2 sliced onions, 2 carrots cut in 4, and Vi handful parsley 
tied; cover with water and cook slowly until tender, 

1 or 2 hours. Let drip, and place in saucepan in which 
have been melted 2 tablespoonfuls butter, mixed with 
same quantity of flour; stir, and add through strainer 
liquor in which chickens have been boiled; when ready 
to serve, place saucepan on corner of range and add 

2 beaten yolks, with 2 tablespoonfuls milk; serve in 
shallow dish, with Rice a la Georgienne (page 473) in 
separate dish. 

ROAST GOOSE (Roast) 
Select a goose with clean white skin, plump breast, 
and yellow feet, red feet denote age. Hanging a few 
days improves the flavor. Pluck, singe, draw, and 
carefully wipe the fowl; cut off neck close to back, 
leaving skin long enough to turn over; cut off feet and 
beat breastbone flat; put a skewer across the back, 
through under part of each wing; draw legs up closely 
and tie. Make stuffing of bread crumbs, 1 or 2 onions, 
a little sage, butter, and salt and pepper to taste, the 
whole mixed with a beaten egg. Baste frequently while 
roasting. Serve with its own gravy, and with apple 
sauce if desired. 

ROAST DUCK (Roast) 

Draw legs as closely as possible to body and tie. If 
cooking a pair, stuff only one (making dressing as 
directed in case of turkey), as flavor is not relished 
by everyone. Another excellent dressing is made of 



486 



GAME, SALADS 



mashed potatoes, seasoned with chopped onions, pep- 
per, and salt, and with just enough bread crusts stirred 
in to give body. Sage may be added if desired. Roast 
in hot oven, basting often. Slcim off any floating grease, 
and serve gravy (thickened if desired), to which may be 
added giblets, previously stewed in water with a lump 
of butter. Peas and currant jelly should accompany 
this roast. 



BROILKD PIGEONS (Entree) 
Prepare pigeons as indicated in "General Re- 
marks" ; cut in two lengthwise, flatten, dip in melted 
butter, roll in bread crumbs, and fry on a not too bright 
fire; serve with Maitre d'Hotel (page 461), to which 
has been added a little lemon juice ; garnish with a 
lemon cut in 6 slices. 



GAME 



GENERAL REMARKS 



Game birds should not be plucked until a day or two after they are killed, and, if the weather 
will allow, they are better flavored for hanging three or four days in a cool place before cooking. 
Tastes vary, however, as to the length of hanging. To remove the fishy taste which waterfowl 
sometimes have, baste them for a few minutes while roasting with hot water, to which an onion 
and a little salt have been added ; after that baste with butter only. Snipe, woodcock, and quail 
usually are not drawn, but are eaten, like oysters, clams, lobsters, and some small fish, entrails 
and all. 



ROAST SNIPE (Roast) 

Snipe may be drawn if preferred. If left undrawn, 
they should be wiped on the outside after plucking. 
Skin head and neck and truss them with head under 
wing; twist legs at first joint, press feet upon thighs, 
and pass a skewer through feet and body. Roast in 
quick oven, in pan with butter or bacon cut in dices. 
Serve on toast, with own gravy poured around. Should 
be sent to table very hot. . 

Undersized snipe are best grilled over a hot fire, 
and served on toast, with butter spread over the birds, 
which are set in the oven for a few moments before 
sending to table. 

ROAST TVOODCOCK (Roast) 
Woodcock should not be drawn; pluck and wipe 
well; truss with legs close to body; skin neck and head 
and bring beak under wing; set each bird on a piece of 
toast in dripping pan, and roast twenty to twenty-five 
minutes, basting frequently. Serve on same toast on 
which roasted, pouring some of the gravy over them, 
and serving remainder apart. 



ROAST PARTRIDGE (Roast) 
Let the birds hang as long as the weather will per- 
mit; then pluck and draw; wijje, but do not wash them 
inside or out; truss them without the head, same as for 
roast fowl; roast in hot oven, basting frequently; serve 
on buttered toast soaked in dripping pan, with own 
gravy or mustard sauce (page 461), apart. 

ROAST QUAIL (Roast) 
Precisely the same as for woodcock. 
ROAST SADDLE OF VENISON (Roast) 
Soak in water over night; then with a knife remove 
the three skins ; in taking off the inner skin, begin at 
the lower side and go upward to the top of the bone; 
then lard with small pieces of .salt smoked pork and 
wrap the roasting piece in a cloth saturated in vinegar, 
in which let it remain until the next day. Place in 
roasting pan a few slices of pork and dry bread crusts; 
salt meat well, put it into the pan with a little water and 
pour over it Vt cup cream; baste frequently, roasting 
15 minutes to the pound. Serve with potato croquettes 
(page 473). 



CHICKEN SALAD (Eiitree) 
VEAL SALAD (Entree) 
Chop finely and mix desired quantity of chicken or 
veal and one-third to one-half as much celery. Cover 
the bottom of salad dish with large, bright lettuce 
leaves, on which heap up the salad daintily, and pour 
over it a mayonnaise dressing ; may be garnished also 
with hard-boiled eggs, cut in halves lengthwise. 
31 



SALADS 

FISH SALAD (Entree) 
Remove skin and bones from 1 can salmon, or 
any cold fish, either boiled or baked, mixing in 3 large 
boiled potatoes, chopped. Serve on lettuce leaves, or 
garnished with parsley, pouring over the salad a dress- 
ing made by seasoning 3 hard-boiled yolks with pepper, 
salt, and mustard, mashing flue, adding J^ cup vinegar 
and a wineglassful cream, and stirring thoroughly. 



WHOLESOME COOKING : SALADS, VEGETABLES 



487 



EGG SALAD (Entree) 
Slice 10 hard-boiled eggs, place in salad dish, and 
pour over them 4 tablespoonfuls olive oil, mixed with 
3 tablespoonfuls vinegar, some hashed parsley, and a 
little salt and pepper. Garnish with parsley. 

PIGS' FEKT SALAD (Entree) 
After cooking feet as in preparation for broiling, 
cut in pieces about 2 inches long and place in salad 
dish ; pour over them a dressing made by mixing 1 table- 
spoonful mustard, 3 tablespoonfuls oil, 14 handful 
chopped parsley, the same quantity of chopped young 
onion tops, and 4 tablespoonfuls vinegar, salted and 
peppered to taste. Serve for luncheon or picnic party. 

POTATO SALAD (Cold Relish:) 

Place in chopping bowl 1 small onion and a stalk of 
celery, chop fine; slice thin 10 or 13 cold boiled potatoes 
into the salad dish, in which lettuce leaves have been 
placed. Mix onion and celery thoroughly with 1 wine- 
glassful olive oil, 1 tablespoonful mixed mustard, 3 
tablespoonfuls vinegar, and pepper and salt to taste. 
Pour this dressing over the potato. 

COLD SLAW (Cold Relish) 
Shred, slice, or chop very fine desired amount of 
cabbage, and place in salad dish ; pour over the cab- 
bage a sauce made thus : Bring 1 cup vinegar to a boil ; 
add mixture of 1 teaspoonful mustard, 3 tablespoon- 
fuls sugar, and 1 teaspoonful salt, scalded together with 
}/2 cup boiling water; add ]4 cup milk or cream and a 
limip of butter ; let boil again, stirring constantly, and 
stir in the beaten yolks of 3 eggs ; pour hot over cab- 
bage as soon as sauce is stirred to an even cor-sistency ; 
let cool, place in ice-box, and serve cold. 



LOBSTER SALAD (Entree) 
Remove shell from boiled lobster, being careful to 
remove vein in back : chop meat, or pick it fine ; chop 
together some celery, lettuce, or endive, with hard- 
boiled eggs, mix with lobster meat, saving the larger, 
reddest slices of meat for garnish ; place on lettuce 
leaves in salad dish, using 12 olives for additional gar- 
nish; pour over it 1 pint mayonnaise dressing; let cool 
awhile, and serve. 

LETTUCE SALAD (Cold Relish) 
Take 1 head of lettuce, separate leaves and dispose 
in salad dish, spreading over them 1 cold boiled potato, 
cut in dices, and 2 hard-boiled eggs, sliced ; pour over 
salad either a mayonnaise or a vinegar dressing. 

SALAD DRESSINGS 

Mayonnaise Dressing— See page 461. 

Vinegar Dressing Without Oil — Mix 1 cupful 
hot vinegar, 1 teaspoonful salt, 1 tablespoonful sugar, a 
pinch of pepper, and a rounding tablespoonful butter; 
when cool, pour over salad. 

French Dressing — For lettuce, potato salad, or 
cold slaw: Grate J^ onion; mix with }4 teaspoonful 
salt, a pinch of pepper, 2 tablespoonfuls olive oil, and 
1 tablespoonful vinegar; stir to a creamy consistency. 

Cream Dressing W^ithout Oil — For cabbage, 
lettuce, tomato, or other vegetable salad: See Cold 
Slaw (page 470). 

Drawn Butter Dressing — Put 2 cupfuls boiling 
water iu saucepan and stir in 2 tablespoonfuls flour 
into which an equal amount of butter has been 
thoroughly mixed ; let melt, stirring constantly ; stir in 
14 handful hashed parsley, pepper and salt to taste, and 
serve immediately. 



VEGETABLES 



FRENCH PEAS 

Melt in stewpan 2 tablespoonfuls butter, add 1 
quart shelled peas, 1 glassful water, 1 whole onion; J,^ 
handful parsley, tied, and some salt and pepper; cook 
slowly for % hour; when ready to serve, take out onion 
and parsley, add 2 tablespoonfuls butter, mixed with 1 
tablespoonful flour, stirring until thickened, and serve 
in warm shallow dish as side dish, or as a garnish (2 tea- 
spoonfuls sugar may be added while cooking). 

GREEN PEAS WITH BACON 

Cut 1 pound bacon in dices, and brown in saucepan ; 
sprinkle with 1 tablespoonful of flour, add 1 glassful 
water, 1 quart peas, 1 whole onion, 1^ handful parsley, 
tied, and some salt and pepper; cook 1 hour; when ready 



to serve, remove onion and parsley, and serve in warm 
shallow dish as side dish. 

GREEN PEAS, ENGLISH STYLE 

Pour peas into boiling water; cook quickly 15 
minutes, salt, and drip; place in warm shallow dish and 
over them 14 pound butter, divided into small slices; 
serve as side dish. 

STRING BEANS, ENGLISH STYLE 

Clean green beans; break off stem ends, at the 
same time stringing them on one side; break off blos- 
som ends also, stringing them on the other; if too long, 
break in two; cook quickly in a quantity of boiling 
water, salt, let drip, and serve as preceding. 



488 



VEGETABLES 



STRING BEANS 

Prepare as for preceding; melt in saucepan 2 table- 
spoonfuls butter; add 1 quart beans, }4 glassful water, 
1 whole onion, J^ handful parsley, tied, and some salt 
and pepper; cook slowly 15 minutes; when ready to 
serve, add 2 tablespoonfuls butter and 2 eggs beaten 
with 1^ glassful milk; stir, but do not allow to boil; 
serve in warm dish as side dish. 

LIMA BEANS WITH BUTTER 

Same as for preceding. 

BAKED BEANS 

Soak 1 quart white beans, well picked over, over 
night; drip and cover well with fresh water; add 1 pound 
lean salt pork; boil until beans are tender; place in 
baking dish with meat, its rind slashed ready to slice, in 
the center; sprinkle with pepper and bake until a light 
brown. To serve, cut meat in slices, dispose in center 
of platter, and garnish with beans. 

BOSTON BAKED BEANS 

Soak 1 quart picked-over beans over night ; place 
in kettle with J^ pound salt pork and 3 quarts water; 
boil slowly 1 hour, adding y^ teaspoonful saleratus just 
before taking them up; strain beans into an earthen- 
ware jar, adding 3 tablespoonfuls molasses and 1 tea- 
spoonful salt; place pork in middle, leaving rind even 
with top; add just enough of the liquor in which beans 
were cooked to cover them ; bake 5 or 6 hours in slow 
oven, adding more of the liquor if required; when 
cooked, remove dried beans from top. 

SUCCOTASH 

Stew in least possible quantity of water equal parts 
green corn and Lima or string beans, until tender; add 
% cupful cream or milk, a lump of butter, pepper and 
salt. Serve in warm dish as side dish. 

ESCALLOPED CORN 

Cut the tops of the kernels from 6 ears tender sweet 
corn ; then scrape carefully, so as to get out all the juice 
with but little of the hull; add a dash of pepper and 
salt, 1 teaspoonful sugar, a lump of butter, 2 eggs beaten 
shghtly, and a little milk to mix; beat all together and 
bake 10 minutes; add i^ cup cream, stir well, and bake 
another 10 minutes; serve hot or cold as a side dish. 

CORN FRITTERS 

Cut from the cob the kernels of 3 ears cooked sweet 
corn; beat thoroughly 1 egg; mix }4 teaspoonful baking 
powder in }^ cup flour, stir into the egg, salt to taste, 
and add the corn, stirring thoroughly; add flour, if 



more is needed to form a moderately stiff batter. Have 
ready in skillet hot lard or bacon drippings % inch deep. 
Into this drop batter, a spoonful in a place, and fry a 
few fritters at a time, serving when a golden brown 
Be careful to cook thoroughly. 

SWEET CORN W^ITH BUTTER 

Husk and wash the corn, and cook (on the cob) for 
V4 hour in boiling salted water, to which has been added 
1 glassful of milk; serve on folded napkin with butter 
in dish at side. 

BROIEED SW^EET CORN 

Broil (on cob) over bright fire, and serve with butter, 
salt, and pepper. 

SPINACH WITH CREAM 

Clean and wash 3 or 4 times about Vt peck spinach; 
cook 10 minutes in quite large quantity salted water, 
pour off water, let drip, cover with cold water, drip 
again, and chop fine; 10 minutes before serving place in 
saucepan with 4 tablespoonfuls butter, 1 tablespoonful 
flour, a little sugar and some salt ; cook awhile, and add, 
while stirring, 1 glass milk; serve as a side dish or 
garnish, or may be served with pieces of toast fried in 
butter. 

SPINACH WITH POACHED EGGS 

Same as with cream, but place on spinach 6 poached 

eggs. 

CELERY W^ITH GRAVY 

Take lower part of 8 small stalks celery, clean and 
cut in pieces 5 inches long, place in saucepan, cover with 
stock, add a little salt, and cook slowly 1 hour; drip and 
place in shallow dish, and keep in warm place; boil 
down stock in which cooked; when ready to serve, 
thicken with 1 tablespoonful cornstarch mixed with a 
little cold stock and 2 tablespoonfuls butter; pour on 
celery and serve as side dish. 

CARROTS FRIED IN BUTTER 

Pare 3 bunches small carrots, sUce crosswise as 
thick as a half-dollar, and cook in boiling water until 
tender; melt in saucepan 2 tablespoonfuls butter, add 
carrots, carefully dripped, sprinkle with a little sugar 
and fry about 10 minutes; serve as side dish. Carrots 
are excellent also cut in quarters lengthwise, stewed 
until tender in salt water, and served with drawn butter 
dressing (pag^470). 

ASPARAGUS WITH WHITE SAUCE 

Clean and wash 3 bunches asparagus, cook in boil- 
ing salted water until tender, and serve on folded nap- 
kin with Hollandaise Sauce (page 461) separate. 



WHOLESOME COOKING : VEGETABLES 



489 



CAULIFLOWER WITH AVHITK SAUCE 

Clean 2 cauliflowers, cut in quarters and wash care- 
fully; cook in boiling salted water until tender; drip 
and place in shallow dish, in original shape; serve with 
Hollandaise sauce. 

CAULIFLOWER AU GRATIN 

Prepare and cook same as foregoing; melt in sauce- 
pan 2 tablespoonfuls butter, mixed with 3 tablespoon- 
fuls flour; add, while stirring, 1 pint milk or cream, 
boil, stirring, until sauce becomes quite thick; add 2 
tablespoonfuls butter; pour some of sauce in bottom of 
shallow dish, add cauliflower, cut in 4 or 5 pieces, pour 
over remainder of cream sauce, sprinkle with bread 
crumbs and grated cheese, brush with melted butter, 
and bake until well colored. 

STUFFED TOMATOES 

Cut out a small core at top of tomato and squeeze 
slightly, so as to remove some of seeds ; then stuff with 
mixture of 1 chopped onion, 2 tablespoonfuls flour, 4 
ounces chopped cooked meat, 3 ounces white bread 
(dipped in milk or stock), and a little chopped parsley, 
all of which is put in saucepan and cooked awhile; 
sprinkle stuffed tomatoes with bread crumbs, grated 
cheest>, and small lumps of butter. Bake 15 minutes. 

FRIED TOMATOES 

Wash firm green tomatoes and slice (without peel- 
ing) % inch thick; roll in flour, sprinkle with salt and 
pepper, and fry in butter or bacon fat until a cinnamon 
brown. Serve 3 slices to a guest, on square or triangle 
of daintily browned toast. For breakfast or luncheon. 

Cucumbers (peeled and sliced) may be fried and 
served in the same fashion. 

CREAMED CUCUMBERS 

Peel 6 cucumbers, cut in quarters, remove seeds, and 
cut in pieces 2 inches long; melt ^ pound butter in 
shallow stewpan, and when warm add cucumbers; cook 
on bright Are 10 minutes; add 2 glassfuls cream and a 
little salt and sugar; boil awhile and serve as side dish. 

FRIED PARSNIPS 

Cut boiled parsnips in thick slices lengthwise, roll 

in flour, and fry in butter or bacon fat to a deep brown. 

Salt and pepper befoi'e removing from skillet, and serve 

hot. 

MUSHROOMS WITH CREAM 

Pour 2 pounds mushrooms (fresh or canned) into 
saucepan and boil awhile in their juice, if canned, in a 
very little salted water, if fresh; place saucepan on 
corner of range and add 8 yolks, mixed with 1 tftble- 



spoonful cornstarch, 1 tablespoonful cream, and some 
chopped parsley ; serve on toast, or as garnish for fash- 
ionable dinners. 

MUSHROOMS ON TOAST 

Prepare nmshrooms as in foregoing, meanwhile 

frying in butter, for each guest, a piece of bread 1 H x 

3x5 inches, in which a hole 2x4 inches and 1 inch deep 

has been cut. Place on buttered dish, the holes in the 

toast fllled with mushrooms and their cream, sprinkle 

with grated cheese and a little butter and bake for 10 

minutes. 

PARSNIP CROQUETTES 

Boil parsnips, well scraped and washed, in salted 

water until very tender (in which state they may be 

served, if desu-ed, with lumps of butter melting over 

them); mash and season with butter, pepper, and salt; 

stir in 2 beaten eggs to which a little flour has been 

added ; mold into croquettes and f i-y in butter or bacon 

fat until a golden brown. 

BOILED BEETS 

Beets require especial care in preparation, lest 
they bleed, and come to the table pale and unappetiz- 
ing, the stalk must not be cut down closely or the root 
broken off. Boil until tender; rub off skins while hot, 
and serve sliced, with lumps of butter melting over, 
peppered, and salted; or, sliced in vinegar, with pepper 

and salt. 

CREAMED ONIONS 

Boil 6 onions in ample water for 1 hour; let drip, 
cut in small pieces, salt and pepper, and serve hot, 
with drawn butter dressing (page 470) poured over. 

FRIED EGG PLANT 

Peel egg plant and slice % inch thick; soak VA 

hours in salted water; let drip, wet on both sides in 

beaten egg, roll in bread or cracker crumbs, and fry to a 

golden brown. Pepper to taste, salt lightly, and serve 

hot. 

BOILED TURNIPS 

Peel and slice turnips, and pour over them cold 
water; cook until quite tender, remembering that more 
time must be allowed than to most other vegetables; 
let drip thoroughly, mash with a little milk or cream, 
and serve as side dish, with lumps of butter melting 
over, pepper, and salt. 

SQUASH 

(Hiibbard, Marrow, Summer; Baked or Boiled) 

Hubbard squashes are generally preferred baked, 

as their rinds are too hard to be removed easily , remove 

all seeds and pith, cut in halves, put a teaspoonful of 

sugar in each hollow, and bake an hour or until tender; 



490 



VEGETABLES 



when done, remove hard crust, scrape from shell with 
spoon, and mash, sweetening, peppering, and salting to 
taste, and serving as side dish with melting lumps of 
butter. 

Any of the marrows or summer squashes may be 
simply pared and cooked, seeds and all, if very young; 
in any case they should be cut in small pieces and 
steamed or boiled until tender, peppered, and salted to 
taste, mashed vi'ith a small quantity of rich cream, and 
served as side dish with melting lumps of butter. 

BOII>ED SALSIFY (Vegetable Oystem) 
Scrape well, cut in thin slices, boil an hour or until 
tender, and when done add a little salt codfish picked 
very fine, having previously let the water boil nearly 
away; add plenty of milk or cream to make gravy, and 
season with salt, pepper, and butter; thicken slightly 
with flour and serve with small bits of toast. 

S^VEET POTATOES, BOILED 

Wash, cut off the ends, and boil in salted water until 
tender (about .30 minutes). Serve with butter. When 
cold, may be peeled and sliced lengthwise and fried in 
butter. 

POTATOES WITH CREAM 

Slice 8 or 10 boiled potatoes, place them in sauce- 
pan with 2 tablespoonfuls butter and 1 cup cream; 
sprinkle with salt and pepper, and chopped parsley, 
and boil 10 minutes. 

POTATOES AU GRATIN 

Prepare and cook potatoes already boiled same as 
foregoing; place in baking dish, sprinkle with grated 
cheese, bread crumbs, and small lumps of butter; bake 
to a light brown. 

POTATOES DUCHESSE 

Peel, slice, and cook until tender in just enough 
water to cover; let drip and place in warm saucepan; 
mash with .3 yolks and a little flour; roll out on board 
sprinkled with flour, and divide into oblong cakes 
5^x1^x3 inches; fry on both sides in butter to golden 
brown and serve as garnish for roasts. 

POTATO CROQUETTES 

Prepare, cook, and mash the same as for the fore- 
going, but add a little butter while mashing; roll in form 
of small cylinder \14 by 3 inches; dip in beaten egg, roll 
in bread and cracker crumbs, and fry in butter ; serve 
for luncheon or as a garnish. 



FRIED POTATOES 

Heat well enough fat or lard to cover potato slices; 
peel raw potatoes, slice, and fry until well colored. 
Fat must be extremely hot, or it will soak into 
potatoes, making them sodden and unpala- 
table. 

PUFFED POTATOES 

Peel the potatoes, cut them lengthwise in slice' 
about 14 inch thick, put them in warm, but not hot 
fat, and cook until tender (about ten minutes). Remove 
from fat and drip, heat the fat very hot, place pota- 
toes in it again, and fry quickly. 

MACARONI A L' ITALIENNE 

Cook 1 pound macaroni in salted water (with no 
fear of using too much water) until quite soft; drip, 
throw away water, and replace macaroni in the same 
warm kettle; add 4 tablespoonfuls butter, 14 pound 
grated cheese, salt, and pepper; allow butter and 
cheese to half melt while stirring, but do not replace 
kettle on range. 

MACARONI WITH TOMATO SAUCE 

Same as for foregoing, but add 3 tablespoonfuls 
tomato catsup. 

MACARONI AU GRATIN 

Cook as for " Macaroni a V Italienne." Place 
macaroni in baking dish, pour over it some bread or 
cracker crumbs, grated cheese and lumps of butter, 
and bake until well colored. 

SPAGHETTI WITH TOMATO SAUCE 

Cook 54 package spaghetti .30 minutes in kettle 
with 4 cupfuls boiling water and 3 or 4 (or !4 can) 
tomatoes; stir frequently, add lump of butter the size 
of a walnut and pepper and salt to taste, with H salt- 
spoonful cayenne pepper. 

RICE A LA GEORGIENNE 

Wash }4 pound rice several times in cold water 
(ceasing when water is clear); cook in boiling water 
until quite soft; let drip, cool, and drip again; melt in 
saucepan, Jr^ pound of butter, add the rice and some 
salt and pepper, mix well, cover saucepan, and bake 
a hour; serve as side dish or garnish. 

OATMEAL A LA AMERICAINE 

Mix in saucepan 1 pound of oatmeal with 1 table- 
spoonful butter, 1 pint water, and a pinch of salt; bake 
in hot oven for 15 minutes, and serve with butter and 
milk or cream. 



WHOLESOME COOKING: BREAD MAKING 491 

BREADS 

GENERAL NOTES ON BREAO MAKING 

How to Choose the Flour — A good flour will be dry, heavy, and very soft to the 
touch ; it should have a clear white color, sometimes a little yellowish ; it should be adhesive to 
the dry fingers, and when pressed between the hands it should form a kind of ball, which will not 
immediately scatter. 

The "Rising-"— Peel, slice, and boil 3 large potatoes ; when tender, mash, and add 1 cupful 
soft yeast or 1 cake dried yeast dissolved in a little lukewarm water, 1 cup flour, 2 teaspoonfuls 
sugar, and a saUspoonful of salt. Mix with the water (cooled) in which the i)otatoes were boiled. 
Set in moderately warm place (not a hot one) and let rise until light. The "rising " is best mixed 
up toward midday, as it recjuires about 2 or 3 hours to become light. 

The Sjiong-e — Mix in bread pan, in evening, 2 tablespoonfuls sugar, i tablespoonful salt, 
1 tablespoonful lard or drippings, and 1 heaping kitchenspoonful flour, to which add 1 small cup- 
ful boiling water, stirring well to cook flour. Add 1 quart cool water or (better) milk, mix 
thoroughly and add "rising." Stir again, adding flour until batter can only just be stirred; stir 
for 5 minutes, and set in a warm, but not liot, place until morning. In the morning add flour 
sufficient to make a dough that can be kneaded on the board ; knead 20 minutes and replace 
lump in bread pan (which has been floured to prevent sticking) ; cover with towel and let rise ; 
when light, make into loaves and let rise in baking pans. When light, bake from 30 minutes to 
1 hour, according to size of loaves. 

The Oven — Success or failure in bread making depends in large measure on the fire. The 
oven, when bread is put in, should be hot enough to bake, but not so hot as is needed for pie-crust. 
To insure even heat, the fire must be planned beforehand, with enough fuel burning to last 
throughout the baking of the bread. The housewife must understand her range, 
knowing precisely when fire must be checked or drafts opened, in order to keep an even heat. 
Adding fuel during baking first checks fire, then intensifies it. Too hot a fire makes dense, 
sodden bread ; too slow a fire makes bread light, dry, and crumbly. If baking is done with 
wood, heavy, well-dried sticks (that will form lasting bed of hot coals) must be used, lest fire flash 
out during the baking. 

Cooling — When taken from oven, loaves should be turned from the pan and laid on sides, 
not touching one another. The crusts will be rendered soft by brushing with a cloth dipped in 
melted butter. When thoroughly cool, put away in bread boxes. Bread that is "sweated" by 
cooling while wrapped in a cloth is no better for it, and will mold much more quickly. 

SOFT YEAST will keep a long time, and has the advantage of not 

Take 2 quarts water to 1 ounce hops ; boil 15 requiring any yeast to start it. It rises so quickly that 

minutes; add 1 quart cold water, and let boil a few » '^ss quantity than of ordinary yeast must be put ia. 
minutes; strain, and add l^ pound flour, putting the RYE BREAD 

latter into a pan and pouring the water on slowly to Put 2 quarts rye flour into a stone jar; stir into it 1 

prevent its getting lumpy. Add 14 pound brown sugar, cup yeast (or 1 cake, dissolved in water), 2 teaspoonfuls 

and a handful of fine salt ; let stand 3 days, stirring salt, and enough water to moisten well; let rise over 

occasionally; when it ferments well, add 6 potatoes night in warm place; in the morning stir it down well; 

which have been boiled, mashed, and run through a do not add more flour, but put into well-buttered pans 

colander, making as smooth as possible. This yeast as soon as light. Bake in slow oven. 



492 



BREADS 



BOSTON BROWN BREAD 

Sift together 3 cups cornmeal, 2 cups rye flour, and 

1 cup wheat flour; mix 3 cups sour milli and 1 cup New 
Orleans molasses, 2 even teaspoonfuls salt, and 1>^ tea- 
spoonfuls soda, the soda having been dissolved in a 
little warm water. While mixture is effervescing, pour 
it into the flour, beating until smooth. Grease a pud- 
ding boiler (or 1-pound baking powder cans), pour in 
the batter, flUing only to within 2 inches of the top ; 
cover closely and place in kettle of boiling water; let 
steam 4 or 5 hours. 

CREAM BISCUIT 

Mix 2 heaping teaspoonfuls baking powder with 
4 cups flour and 1 level teaspoonful salt; add a lump of 
butter the size of an egg and enough cream to make 
soft dough; roll thin, cut out, and bake in hot oven. 

SODA BISCUIT 

Mix 2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar with 1 tea- 
spoonful soda, stir it well into 4 cupfuls flour; add a 
heaping tablespoonful butter or lard and a little salt, 
mixing all together quickly with enough milk, or milk 
and water, to make a soft dough ; roll out, cut, and 
bake quickly. 

FRENCH ROLLS 

Mix 2 heaping teaspoonfuls baking powder with 4 
cups sifted flour and !4 teaspoonful salt, adding sweet 
milk, or milk and water, to make a soft dough; roll, 
and cut out in round pieces, placing a small lump of 
butter in the center of each, and folding dough over 
in form of half circle; bake in quick oven. 

BREAKFAST ROLLS 

Mix at evening 4 cups flour with 1 cup warm milk, 

2 beaten eggs, \ cake yeast, and a little salt; work 
over thoroughly and set in warm place to rise over 
night; knead in butter the size of an egg, make into 
rolls, and bake. 

DROPPED BISCUIT 
Make a stiff batter of 2 cups warm (but not hot) 
milk, 2 tablespoonfuls butter, a pinch of salt, 1 cup of 
soft yeast (or 1 cake dry, dissolved in water), and white 
flour. When light, drop from spoon on to buttered 
pans to bake, being careful not to agitate batter. 

PARKER HOUSE ROLLS 

Mix in bowl 1 heaping tablespoonful butter, 1 table- 
spoonful sugar, and V2 teaspoonful salt, with 8 cups 
flour; make hole in flour and pour in 1 pint scalded 
milk, still warm, and Vt yeast cake dissolved in a little 
water; stir in part of the flour, mixing thoroughly, and 



let rise over night; knead again, using remainder of 
flour, and let rise until afternoon ; roll out, cut, butter, 
and fold as for French rolls; set in warm place and 
when light enough, bake. 

GRAHAM MUFFINS 

Mix 1 beaten egg, 4 cupfuls graham flour, 2 heap- 
ing teaspoonfuls baking powder, Yj teaspoonful salt, 
2 tablespoonfuls butter, and milk enough to make soft 
batter; bake in muffin or gem tins. 

CORN MUFFINS 

Mix 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder with 1 cup flour, 
1 cup cornmeal, a little sugar, and some salt ; add 2 
beaten eggs and milk enough to make soft batter ; 
bake quickly. 

CURRANT BUNS 

To be served hot from the oven. Mix 2 heaping 
teaspoonfuls baking powder and y^ teaspoonful salt 
with 4 cups flour ; mix in well butter the size of an egg, 
and add enough milk to make a soft dough ; roll out 
Yi inch thick, spread with sugar, then with English 
currants, then with another sprinkling of sugar and a 
dusting of cinnamon ; roll up as for jelly roll ; cut in 
2-inch lengths, and bake on end, in buttered pans, in 
quick oven. 

JOHNNY CAKE 

Scald 4 cups cornmeal with 2 cuj)s boiling water ; 
while hot, add 2 tablespoonfuls butter or lard, 1 table- 
spoonful sugar, and 1 teaspoonful salt ; when cool add 

1 pint sour milk or cream, mixed with 1 teasi oonful 
soda and 1 beaten egg ; mix well and bake in well- 
buttered, shallow pans. Serve hot. 

CORN WAFFLES 

Mix 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder with 2 coffee 
cups cornmeal and some salt ; add 1 tablespoonful 
melted butter, 2 yolks beaten in 1 pint of milk ; stir, 
then add the beaten whites of the eggs, and bake 
quickly in very hot, buttered waffle iron. 

RAISED WAFFLES 

Mix 2 cups flour with one pint scalded milk, cool ; 
add y^ yeast cake dissolved in water, and a little salt ; 
let rise over night ; then add the whites and yolks of 

2 eggs beaten separately and 1 tablespoonful melted 
butter ; bake in very hot waffle iron. 

WHEAT CAKES 

Mix 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder with about 3 
cups flour and a little salt ; beat I or 2 eggs and add, 
with enough milk to make batter. 



BUCKWHEAT CAKES 



WHOLESOME COOKING : BREADS, PASTRY 493 

CORN PANCAKES a thin batter; add yeast and a pinch of salt; let rise 

Mix 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder with 1 pint corn- o^^r night; in the morning add ]/^ teaspoonful soda to 
meal, M pint flour, and a little salt; add 2 beaten eggs sweeten, and bake on hot griddle. A little wheat flour 
and enough sweet milk to make a batter. Or, put 1 tea- "i^y be added when mixing batter, and the addition of 
spoonful soda in 1 pint sour cream, add a beaten egg, ^ tablespoonful syrup will make cakes brown nicely, 
a little salt, 4 tablespoonf uls flour, and enough cornmeal For three or four days a little of the left-over batter 
to make soft batter. »nay be used instead of yeast, stirring in buckwheat, 

water, and salt each night, letting rise till morning, 
and adding soda before baking. Left-over cakes may 
Dissolve Yi yeast cake in a little water, mix enough be broken up and stirred into the next day's batter in 
buckwheat flour with 1 quart lukewarm water to make which they will dissolve. 

PASTRY 

REMARKS ON PASTRY 

In making pastry always sift the flour. Rub the butter or lard into it before adding the 
water, which should be as cold as possible. If lard is used add salt ; mix quickly. Many prefer 
cutting with a knife instead of rubbing in shortening with the hands. 

French Pull" Paste — Take equal quantities of flour and butter, say 1 pound of each, 
% saltspoonful of salt, the yolks of 2 eggs, and rather more than % pint of water ; sift the flour, 
and press all the water from the butter. Put the flour on the paste board, work lightly into it 
2 ounces of the butter ; then make a hole in the flour, and into it put the yolks of 2 eggs, the salt, 
and about \i pi^it of water ; knead quickly, and, when smooth, roll it out into a square ^ inch 
thick. Put the remainder of the butter in a ball on the paste, and fold the paste securely over it ; 
roll it lightly with the rolling-pin, but not thin enough to allow the butter to break through ; 
keep the board well dredged. This rolling gives it the first turn ; now fold the paste in three and 
roll again ; if weather is warm, cool paste between each two rollings, for unless butter is kept 
cool, paste will not answer at all. Continue this process until paste has had six rollings. If 
properly made and baked, this crust should rise in the oven 5 or 6 inches. Paste or pie-crust 
never must be squeezed up, for squeezing consolidates the laminae that give it flakiness. The 
trimmings from pies, or the waste after cutting out patties or tarts, must be laid flat, one on 
another, and rolled together. 

Plain Pie-crnst — Work 1 cup lard, or lard and butter together, into 3 cups flour, to 
which has been added 1 teaspoonful salt ; add enough cold water to make a stiff dough ; turn 
dough on floured paste board, sprinkle with flour, and roll out ; spread thickly with butter, 
sprinkle with flour, fold three-ply, and roll again ,• repeat three times (or a few times more, if a 
puffy crust is desired), spreading with butter each time. This makes enough crust for two large 
pies. 

LEMON CREAM PIE fuls white sugar, a pinch of salt, and the juice and 

Stir into 1 teacupful boiling water 1 tablespoonful grated rind of 2 large lemons; bake slowly until set. 
cornstarch dissolved in cold water ; add 1 tablespoon- Meanwhile beat white of 2 eggs, and beat in 6 table- 
ful butter and 1 teacupful powdered sugar ; let cool ; spoonfuls powdered sugar; spread this meringue over 
then add juice and grated rind of 1 lemon and 1 beaten Pies, and bake to a light brown, 
egg. Bake in tai-t without upper crust. APPLE PIE 

LEMON MERINGUE PIE Fill pie-crust with juicy apples, pared and sliced 

For filling, dissolve 3 tablespoonf uls cornstarch in 1 thin. To each pie take ]/^ teacupful sugar, butter the 
cup sweet milk; add 6 yolks and 4 whites, beaten, 2 cup- size of a walnut, 1 teaspoonful flour, and % nutmeg 



494 



PASTRY, PUDDINGS 



grated; strew this seasoning over apples, and add 2 or 
3 tablespoonfuls water, according to the juiciness of 
the apples. Pinch close the edges of upper crust, and 
bake at once. 

COCOANUT PIE 

Mix 1 cupful grated cocoanut, 1 cup sugar, 1 quart 
milk, 1 tablespoonful butter, and 3 eggs. Flavor with 
nutmeg, and bake in deep pie plate, lined with pie-crust. 

CUSTAKD PIE 

For 1 pie, beat 2 or 3 eggs, add 1 pint milk, sweeten 
to taste, and flavor with nutmeg; line pie plate with 
crust, pour in custard, and bake. 

RHUBARB PIE 

Peel and cut stalks in Vt inch pieces and cook in 
saucepan with very little water; when done, sweeten to 
taste, pour into crusts and sprinkle with cornstarch or a 
little flour; cover with crust or meringue and bake in 
quick oven. Serve as soon as cold. 

MINCE PIE 

To 3 pounds finely chopped boiled beef add 6 pounds 
apples, 1 pound suet, 2 pounds raisins. 2 pounds cur- 
rants, 1 pound citron, 2 ounces candied lemon, 1 ounce 
mace, 1 ounce cinnamon, 1 ounce nutmeg, 1 pound 
sugar, 1 pint molasses or syrup, and 1 quart boiled 



cider. Seed raisins, and chop half of them; chop apples, 
thoroughly wash currants, and slice citron very thin; 
mix well, put on fire, and cook slowly until apples are 
done. Increase amovmt of cider, if too stiff; add sugar, 
if desired. To each pie, 1 tablespoonful brandy may 
be added. 

PUMPKIN PIE 

Stew pumpkin with just enough water to prevent 
burning; when soft, rub through colander, and to each 
coffee-cupful add 1 pint milk or cream, 2 eggs, 1 cup 
sugar, and flavoring to taste (ginger or mixed spices). 

GOOSEBERRY PIE 

Fill crust-lined pie dish with ripe or canned goose- 
berries, sweeten to taste, dredge with flour or corn- 
starch, cover, and bake; when ready to serve, dredge 
with powdered sugar 

CHERRY PIE 

Same as for Gooseberry Pie, but omit dredging 
with flour or cornstarch. 

APPLE TARTS 

Cook soft 6 tart apples, rub them through a colan- 
der, and add 1 well-beaten egg, grated rind and juice of 
1 lemon, butter the size of a walnut, and 1 cup sugar; 
mix well. Line tart pans with French puff paste, fill 
with the sauce, and bake quickly. 



PUDDINGS 

The pudding bag, in the case of boiled puddings, must be scalded before each using, then 
wrung out and allowed to cool. The bag must be liberally dredged with flour, to prevent sticking, 
and the pudding must not completely fill the bag, which must be securely tied. If a boiled pud- 
ding is to be a success, care must be taken that the water is boiling so briskly that dropping in the 
pudding will not bring it below the boiling point. A teakettle should be kept boiling on another 
hole of the range, so that none l)ut boiling water need be added, for if the water stops boiling at 
any time, a soggy pudding will result. 



FRUIT PUDDING 

Mix 1 pint sugar with 4 beaten eggs ; add ]/^ pint 
sour cream mixed with }^ teaspoonf ul soda, a little salt, 
and 3 cups flour ; stir in 1 quart fruit (blackberries, 
raspberries, huckleberries, blueberries, or sweet cooked 
elderberries); place in baking dish and bake. Serve 
hot, with any pudding sauce preferred. If no sour milk 
is at hand, use the same quantity sweet milk, stirring 
2 teaspoonfuls baking powder into the dry flour, and 
omitting the soda. 

APPLE DUMPLING 

Pare and core medium-sized, juicy, tart apples. 
Make dough same as for soda biscuit, cut into thick 



biscuits, roll out, and wrap each piece around an apple, 
which must first be liberally sugared and dusted with 
powdered cinnamon or nutmeg. Place in a steamer 
over kettle of boiling water, and cook until apples are 
soft. These dumplings, if preferred, may be baked 
until a deep golden brown, in which case, apples should 
be sliced. Serve with sweetened cream or hard sauce, 
the latter, if used, flavored with cinnamon or nutmeg. 

STRAWBERRY SHORTCAKE 

Mix 1 good half-teaspoonful soda with 1 large cup- 
ful sour milk or sour cream ; add 1 beaten egg, 1 table- 
spoonful sugar, and a little salt ; rub 3 tablespoonfuls 
butter into 4 cupfuls flour, and mix with the other in- 



WHOLESOME COOKING : PUDDINGS 



495 



gredients, Handling as little as possible (as in case of 
pie-crust, to avoid toughening). Roll into two J^^-inch 
layers, place one layer on top of the other, and bake in 
buttered pans. When done, separate the layers while 
warm, spread with butter, and place strawberries (or 
peaches, raspberries, or other fruit) thickly sprinkled 
with powdered sugar, between them. Cover top layer 
with fruit (if with strawberries, small ends up). Serve 
hot, dusting with powdered sugar just before bringing 
to the table. 

BOrY-POLY PUDDING 
Roll soda-biscuit dough J^ inch thick and spread to 
about the same thickness with preserves or ripe fruit, 
cut fine; roll up like a jelly roll, pinching the ends to 
keep fruit in, and pinching up the outer edge. Tie 
tightly in pudding bag and boil for about 1 hour. Serve 
hot, in slices crosswise, with wine sauce (or other liquid 
sauce) poured over individual portions. 

ENGLISH PLUM PUDDING 

Mix ]4 pound bread crumbs, y^ pound flour, 1 pound 
each of currants, seedless raisins, brown sugar, and 
mixed candied peel, 1 teaspoonful salt, 1 tablespoonful 
mixed spices, and 1 cup chopped suet. When thor- 
oughly mixed, add 8 eggs, beat for 25 minutes, and stir 
in 14 pint brandy (if desired). Butter a mold and fill it, 
and place in pudding bag ; tie rather loosely over top of 
mold, and boil for 13 hours. 

BREAD PUDDING 

Pour 1 quart boiling milk into a dish lilled with 
bread crumbs; stir in 2 beaten eggs and J^ cup sugar; 
sprinkle with cinnamon and bake 20 minutes, serve 
with cream and sugar. The pudding may be improved 
by the addition of any kind of fruit before baking. 

RICE PUDDING 

To 1 cupful boiled rice add 4 beaten eggs, 1 cupful 
each of sugar and seedless or seeded raisins, a little nut- 
meg, and 11^ pints milk; bake until milk is like custard, 
and brown on top. 

RICE PUDDING WITHOUT EGGS 

Wash ]4 teacupful rice, and stir, with a little less 
than a teacupful sugar, the same quantity of raisins, 
and a teaspoonful of cinnamon or allspice, into 2 quarts 
milk; bake rather slowly from 2 to 3 hours; stir 2 or 3 
times the first hour of baking. 

APPLE TAPIOCA PUDDING 

Peel 1^ dozen sour apples; if perfect, simply core, 
otherwise cut in halves, core, and place halves together; 
place in buttered pudding dish, sprinkle with sugar, 



cover with a plate, and bake until well done. Then over 
them pour 1 cupful tapioca which has been softened 
by soaking 3 hours in 3 pints water on back of range. 
Hard tapioca is an abomination; the proper degree of 
softness can only be obtained by applying a gentle heat 
for a long time, or soaking over night. The tapioca 
should be sweetened slightly and flavored with lemon 
extract. Return to oven and bake until browned on 
top. Let cool to a jelly, and serve with cream and 
sugar. 

BOILED CUSTARD 

Boil 1 pint cream or rich milk, strain, and when 
cold mix well with 6 beaten eggs, and sugar and nut- 
meg to taste. Pour into cups and bake in slow oven 
for about half an hour. 

BAKED INDIAN PUDDING 

Scald 1 quart milk; stir into a little cold milk 1 tea- 
cupful yellow cornmeal, and add to the boiling milk, 
stirring until it thickens, but 110 longer, or it will not 
bake well. When nearly cold, add 2 well-beaten eggs, 
a pinch of salt, a pint of cold milk, and sweeten with 
half sugar and half molasses; flavor with nutmeg, if at 
all; bake about 1 hour, or until water bubbles from the 
top. Serve hot. 

STEAMED SUET PUDDING 

Mix 3 cups flour with 2 cups sweet milk, 1 cup mo- 
lasses (into which 1 teaspoonful soda has been stirred), 
and 1 cup each of seeded raisins, currants, and chopped 
suet. Put in 2-quart basin or individual cups, and 
steam for 2 hours. Serve with any liquid sauce pre- 
ferred. 

CHOCOLATE PUDDING 

Pour 1 pint boiling milk over 4 ounces grated choc- 
olate (bitter or sweet). Dissolve 3 tablespoonf uls corn- 
starch in 1 pint milk, add 3 beaten eggs, 1 teaspoonful 
vanilla extract, and sweeten to taste. Mix and pour 
into the milk and chocolate. Boil 1 minute, stirring 
briskly; pour into cups or molds and set away in a cold 
place until wanted. This pudding may be improved by 
the addition of a meringue ( see page 476). 

VANILLA SOUFFLE 

Break 3 eggs, put whites aside, and yolks in sauce- 
pan with % pound sugar, 3 tablespoonf uls flour, some 
vanilla, the grated rind of a lemon, and 1 pint milk. 
Cook, while beating, about 10 minutes, until thick. 
Beat the whites stiff and pour, little by little, into the 
saucepan, stirring constantly. Pour into a buttered 
cake mold, and bake in oven not too warm, until it 
swells and has an attractive yellow color. Serve with 
granulated sugar sprinkled over, or with a little green- 
grape or currant jelly on each individual plate. 



496 



PUDDINGS, SAUCES, ICE CREAM, ICES 



SNOW EGGS -FLOATING ISLAND 

Place the yolks of 10 eggs in a saucepan and whip 
the whites separately. Poach the whites, spoonful 
after spoonful, in boiling milk (1 quart of milk, with 
4 tablespoonfuls sugar and a little lemon or vanilla 
extract added, boiling quickly in a somewhat shallow 
pan); lift out carefully the poached spoonfuls of egg, 
and let drip on a platter. Mix j^olks with 4 tablespoon- 
fuls sugar, and pour into the same pan of hot milk, 
stirring constantly until somewhat thickened. Pour 
into a shallow dish and over the top carefully dispose 
the poached whites. When cool, place on each 
" island " a small piece of any preferred jelly. 

CHARLOTTE BUSSE 

Take 18 ladyfingers (or oblongs of sponge c°Me 
V4 X 1 X 3 inches) ; brush edges with white of egg, and 
with these line the bottom of a plain round mold 
(placing cakes in form of star, or rosette), likewise 
standing cakes upright around the edge, placing so 
closely that the white of egg will cement them. Place 
in oven for 5 minutes to dry the egg; whip % pint of 
cream to stiff froth, add 1 tablespoonful powdered 
sugar, Yi ounce melted gelatin, and 1 teaspoonful 
vanilla; beat thoroughly and pour into mold, covering 
top with circular slice of sponge cake. Place on ice. 
When cold, turn upside down on dish, remove mold, 
and serve. 

PICK-UP PUDDING 

Place in steamer slices of dry cake; while steam- 
ing, rub together V2 tablespoonful butter and 3 table- 
spoonfuls sugar, flavor with cinnamon and pour into 
a Uttle boiling water; thicken with a little cornstarch 
wet in cold water. Serve 1 or 2 slices to a person, with 
sauce poured over. 



SAUCES FOR PUDDINGS 

Cream Sauce — Beat together 1 yolk and 1 tea- 
spoonful flour, sweeten to taste, and stir into 1^ cups 
boiling milk; cool and flavor; may be used in place of 
cream. 

Hard Sauce — Cream together 1 cup sugar and 34 
pound butter; flavor with nutmeg and add the juice and 
grated rind of a lemon (for which, if desired, 2 or 3 table- 
spoonfuls sherry may be substituted). Serve in small 
individual dish apart, or place a lump on top of each 
individual service of hot pudding. 

Vanilla Sauce — Mix 3 beaten eggs, 14 pound 
butter, and % pound sugar; flavor with vanilla and add 
a little boiling vvater to thicken. 

Sherry (or Madeira) Wine Sauce — Place in 
saucepan 2 tablespoonfuls butter and 1 teaspoonful 
flour; stir over fire until it thickens, then mix in beaten 
yolks of 4 eggs, 2 tablespoonfuls sugar, a pinch of salt, 
and 14 piiit sherry or Madeira, stirring wine in briskly. 
Let remain on flre until on point of simmering, but ds 
not let it boil, or it will curdle. For plum, suet, and bread 
puddings. 

Brandy Sauce — Warm (but do not melt) 14 pound 
butter and rub in 1 pound powdered sugar and flavor 
with a saltspoonful ground cinnamon (and same quan- 
tity of nutmeg if desired). Beat in 4 tablespoonfuls 
brandy, and place on ice. 

White Sauce —Rub to a cream 1^ cup butter and 
1 cup sugar; add the beaten white of an egg, ]4 teaspoon- 
ful extract lemon or rose, and 1 cup boiling water, into 
which has been stirred 1 teaspoonful cornstarch (in a 
little cold water). 

Liemon Sauce — Prepare as for Sherry Wine Sauce 
above, but grate into the sugar the rind of 1 lemon, sub- 
stituting for the larger amount of sherry (or Madeira) 
1 large wineglassful each of sherry and water and the 
juice of 1 lemon, strained. 



ICE CREAMS AND ICES 



VANILLA ICE CBEAM 

Place in saucepan 6 to 8 yolks, well mixed with 
1^ cups sugar; add 2 teaspoonfuls vanilla, and also 
add, little by little, while stirring, 1 quart cream. Place 
saucepan on corner of range, allowing mixture to warm, 
but not to boil. Cream will be ready when it sticks 
to the spoon. Cool and freeze. 

CHOCOLATE ICE CBEAM 

Same as for Vanilla, but add 14 pound shaved 
chocolate. 

STRAWBEBBY ICE 

Clean 1 quart strawberries and press through sieve 
(or potato "ricer")- Pour into bowl with % pound 



sugar, l]/i pints water, and juice of 4 lemons. Mix all 
and put aside, stirring from time to time until sugar 
is dissolved. Then freeze. 

BASPBEBBY ICE 

Same as foregoing, but use raspberries. 
LEMON, OBANGE ICE 

Same as foregoing, but instead of other fruit use 
grated rind of a lemon or orange, and the juice of 6. 

STBAWBEBBY, PEACH ICE CBEAM 

Same as for Vanilla, but when partly frozen, add 
in freezer whole strawberries or peaches cut up, and 
revolve briskly to distribute fruit. 



WHOLESOME COOKIXG : CAKE MAKING 497 

CAKES 

GENERAI. REMARKS 

The prime essentials for good cake, as for good pastry, are good flour and good butter. Some 
cooks prefer unsalted b-utter, some butter from which the salt has been washed, some salted butter, 
and some butter and lard mixed. 

Always sift the baking powder with the flour (or, in a soda cake, soda must first be dissolved - 
in warm water or sour cream). 

Always rub butter and sugar to a cream, adding next the well-beaten yolks of the eggs, then 
the milk and flour by degrees, and, lastly, the whites, beaten to a stifi' froth. 

After these are added batter should be beaten as little as possible, on which success in 
cake making- largely depends. 

Fruit must always be dredged with flour before adding to batter, or it will settle to bottom. 

Raisins should be seeded (unless the seedless are used) and chopped (except for fruit cakes, when 
some should be left whole). 

Currants, as bought, are full of grit and dirt. They must be washed in many waters in a col- 
ander, spread on tins to dry, and put away in bulk for future use. 

Almonds may be quickly blanched by scalding with water, after which skins may be rubbed 
off. 

The economical housewife economizes, first of all, her time. There is no need to waste time 
and risk failure in experimenting with new recipes for plain cakes, when a few standard cakes of 
all the various sorts needed so readily lend themselves to all possible combinations. 

STANDARD CAKES sugar and hot water, beating quickly; then add 2 cups 

1. Gold Cake -One and one-half cups sugar; ^ Ao"''' '" ''■^'^'^ ^^ teaspoonfuls baking powder have 

cup butter; 1 cup sweet milk; 2 teaspoonfuls baking been sifted; add small pinch of salt and 1 teaspoonful 

powder, mixed with 3 cups flour; beaten yolks of 6 eggs. lemon extract; lastly, add whites of eggs, mixing as 

Flavor with nutmeg or vanilla, or other flavoring if "gbtly as possible. Bake m quick oven, 
needed for combination. 

3. Silver Cake — One and one-half cups sugar; 
J^ cup butter; 1 cup sweet milk ; 2 teaspoonfuls baking 

powder; 3 cups flour ; whites of 6 eggs beaten to a froth Cream Cake — Bake desired number of layers of 

and added last. Flavor with bitter almond or lemon, Silver Cake (No. 2 or 3) and put together with the fol- 

or as desired. lowing fllling: Place in saucepan 1 pint milk, sweetened 

3. Plain (Cup ) Cake -Three eggs ; 1)4 cups to taste; bring to a boil, and stir in 2 beaten eggs, add 
sugar; i^ cup melted butter; 1 cup water (or milk, in 1 tablespoonful cornstarch mixed with a little cold 
which case reducing butter by i^); 3 cups flour; 3 tea- water. Let boil up once and flavor with lemon or 
spoonfuls baking powder ; flavor with vanilla, or as vanilla. Frost with desired icing, or sprinkle upper 
desired. layer with powdered sugar. 

4. Fruit Spice Cake — One cup sugar; 1 cup Orange Cake — Bake desired number of layers of 
molasses; % cup butter; 1 cup sour milk; 3 cups flour; Plain Cake (No. 3), (using, however, the yolks of 5 eggs 
3 eggs; 1 teaspoonful each of soda, nutmeg, and cloves. and the whites of 3. and flavoring with orange extract). 
(Mix soda with molasses and sour milk.) One-half tea- Put together and frost with cooked icing, in which are 
spoonful cinnamon; ^cupful citron, chopped; 1 cupful used the other two whites, and to which is added (when 
each of raisins and currants. a little cool) the grated rind and juice of one orange. 

5. Sponge Cake - Pour 1 cup boiling water over Between the layers dispose thin slices of orange, seeded. 
2 cups sugar; separate yolks and whites of 4 eggs, and Nougat Cake — Bake desired number of layers of 
beat both well, the whites to a stiff froth ; add yolks to Silver Cake (No. 2). Put together and frost with cookei 



COMBINATION CAKES 

Based upon Standard Cakes as Above 



498 



CAKES 



icing to which are added chopped nuts of various sorts. 
Flavor iciug with a suspicion of bitter almond. 

Chocolate Nut Cake — This cake has layers of 
two colors. For light layers, bake from Silver Cake 
batter (No. 2) ; for dark layers, stir into same batter 1 
ounce finely grated chocolate; or, better, use Gold Cake 
batter (No. 1), adding chocolate. Put together with 
filling made of 4 ounces melted chocolate, to which are 
added 2 tablespoonfuls butter, J^ pound sugar, and 
i^ cupful cream, boil until it forms a soft cake when 
" tried " in ice water, and stir in 1 cupful finely chopped 
English walnuts. Frost with same icing, or, better, 
with a plain chocolate icing, over which are disposed 
the halves of walnuts. 

Cocoamit Cake — Bake desired number of layers 
of Plain Cake (No. 3) and put together and frost with 
plain uncooked icing to which has been added all of 
1 grated cocoanut except enough to sprinkle dry over 
top and sides. 

Fig Cake — Bake desired number of layers of 
Silver Cake (No. 2) and put together with 1 pound 
chopped figs cooked to a paste with }^ cup sugar and 
1 cup water, stirring to make smooth. If desired, only 
two layers may be baked, and these split to make four. 
Frost top and sides with plain white icing, cooked or 
uncooked. 

L.oaf Cocoanut Cake — Use Plain Cake batter 
(No. 3), stirring in, the last thing before baking, 1 grated 
cocoanut. Leave plain, or ice as for cocoanut layer 
cake. 

Cliocolate Cake — Use recipe for Silver Cake 
(No. 2) or Plain Cake (No. 3), the former being daintier, 
putting together and frosting with plain chocolate 
icing, or with cooked white icing into which 4 table- 
spoonfuls grated chocolate have been stirred. Flavor 
both cake and frosting with vanilla. 

Hickory Nut Cake — Employ recipe for Plain 
Cake (No. 3). but if desired use 4 eggs, 2 cups sugar, and 
1 cup butter. The last thing before baking, stir through 
batter 2 cups chopped hickory nut meats, dredged with 
flour. Flavor to taste and bake in loaf, sprinkling with 
powdered sugar, or icing if desired. 

Ribbon Cake has layers of two colors ; if a 
quantity of cake is being baked, use recipes for Silver 
and Fruit Spice Cakes (Nos. 2 and 4); for a single cake, 
fill two layer tins with Silver Cake batter (No. 2), then 
for the middle layer stir into the remainder of the bat- 
ter }^ cupful chapped raisins, 14 cupful citron, a little 
ground cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. Put together 
and frost top and sides with generous quantity of fruit 
icing. 

Rolled Jelly Cake — Bake Sponge Cake (No. 5) 
in thin sheets in oblong tins. Turn from tin onto a 



double towel wrung out of cold water; spread the bot- 
tom with any preferred jelly or jam, roll, and dust out- 
side with powdered sugar. 

SPECIAL CAKES 

Angel Cake — This is a very delicate cake, every 
condition prescribed for the making of which must be 
observed, or it will prove a failure. Take 1J4 tum- 
blers pulverized sugar, or the very fine granulated, 1 
tumbler flour, whites of 10 eggs, 1 teaspoonful cream 
of tartar, and 1 teaspoonful extract lemon or vanilla. 
Beat whites to a stiff froth; then sift sugar, flour, and 
cream of tartar together four tintes, so as to make it 
extremely Hght. Stir in quickly the whites, and with 
as little beating as possible; put batter in an unbut- 
terecl tin (one with a pipe in the center to insure even 
baking is preferable), and bake 40 minutes in a slow 
oven. Turn upside down to cool, but put something 
under the edges to prevent its lying on a flat surface 
and becoming heavy. Tin used for Angel Cake should 
be used, from the first, for nothing else. 

Pound Cake — Beat the whites and yolks of 8 
eggs separately ; cream together 1 poimd sugar and 1 
poimd butter, add the beaten eggs, and stir in 1 pound 
flour. Flavor to taste and bake in moderate oven, 
preferably in small pans. 

Fruit Pound Cake — Same as foregoing, but 
stir in 1 cup citron and 1 cup raisins (seeded but 
unchopped), dredged with flour. 

Rich Fruit Cake — Cream together 1% pounds 
butter and 2 pounds sugar; add 6 beaten eggs, 1 grated 
nutmeg, 1 teaspoonful cloves, and 1 teaspoonful cinna- 
mon, i4 cup milk, and 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder 
mixed with 2J^ pounds flour. Stir in 2 pounds each of 
raisins and currants and % pound citron. Bake in a 
slow oven. 

Black Fruit Cake— Cream together 1 pound each 
of brown sugar and butter; add 10 beaten eggs, 2 tea- 
spoonfuls each of nutmeg and cinnamon, 1 teaspoonful 
of cloves, and 1 pound browned flour into which 1 tea- 
spoonful baking powder has been stirred. Stir in 2 
pounds each currants and raisins, and Yi pound citron. 
Bake in slow oven, 2 or 3 days before using. 

Old - fashioned Pork Fruit Cake — Put in 
mixing bowl B cups sifted flour, and sift in 4 cups more 
which have been well browned, mixing well. Chop 1 
pound fat salt pork very fine, pour over it 2 cups boiling 
water, and set to cool. Into a hole in the flour pour 
6 beaten eggs, mixed with 1 pound dark brown sugar 
and 1 teaspoonful each of allspice, cinnamon, cloves, 
and nutmeg. Then stir in 1 cupful molasses and 1 pint 
sour milk, into which 1 level teaspoonful soda hgs been 



WHOLESOME COOKIXG: CAKES 



499 



stirred; add the inineed pork and water, and stir in the 
rtour, adding more if batter is too thin. Lastly, add 
1 pound chopped raisins, 1 jjound whole seeded raisins, 
1 pound currants, and ^ pound citron, all well dredged 
with flour. Stir gently through the batter, and bake in 
a slow oven. When done set away in stone jars, and 
do not use for four weeks, or more. This cake 
will keep a year. 

Quick Sponge Cake — Beat 2 eggs, add 1 cup 
sugar and 1 teaspoonf ul baking powder mixed in 1 cup 
flour; add 2 tablespoonfuls boiling water; stir well, but 
do not beat. Bake in a loaf in shallow tin, or in gem tin. 

Soft Molasses Cake — Mix 1 cup butter, 1 pint 
molasses into which 2 teaspoonfuls soda have been 
stirred, 1 pint flour, M pint milk, 2 eggs, 1 tablespoonful 
ginger, and enough more flour to make somewhat less 
stiff batter than for Cup Cake. Bake in moderate oven. 

Soft Gingerbread — Pour 1 cup boiling water 
over 1^ cup butter and 1 cup molasses, into which 1 
teaspoonf ul soda has been stirred; add 1 teaspoonf ul 
ginger, a small pinch of cloves, 1 egg, and 2 cups flour. 

ICINGS FOR CAKES 

Boiled White Icing — Allow 1 cup of granulated 
sugar to the white of 1 egg; put sugar in saucepan with 
1^ cupful water and boil without stirring until syrup 
hairs; beat the whites of eggs in bowl to a stiff froth, 
and when syrup is done, pour it, boiling hot, in a thin 
stream into the egg, beating vigorously meanwhile, lest 
the egg cook in lumps. If desired, a pinch of cream 
of tartar may be added; flavor to taste. 

Uncooked White Icing — Beat whites of eggs 
in bowl to stiff froth; then pour in pulverized sugar 
gradually, beating until smooth, and allowing "4 pound 
sugar to each egg. Add more sugar if needed, and 
flavor as desired. 

Lemon Icing — Beat together the juice and rinds 
of 1 or 2 lemons, 3 beaten eggs, 1 teaspoonful butter, 
1^ glass water, and 2 cupfuls sugar. Boil to a creamy 
consistency. 

Chocolate Icing — Mix together 1 cup sugar, 1 
tablespoonful butter, }4 cake shaved chocolate, and 4 
tablespoonfuls boiling water. Stir until dissolved, boil 
a little, and flavor with vanilla. 

Fruit Icing — Add to Boiled White Icing, 1 cup- 
ful chopped raisins or figs (or both) to each egg used. 
Chopped blanched almonds may be added if desired. 

Almond Cream Filling — Whip 1 pint thick 
cream to the stiffest possible froth; sweeten well, flavor 
with vanilla, and add 2 cupfuls chopped blanched 
almonds. Spread thickly between layers very shortly 
before serving. 



SMAtl. CAKES, CRULLERS, ANI> COOKIES 

Spice Cakes — Mix 6 beaten eggs with 4 cups 
brown sugar and 2 large cups flour; add cinnamon and 
cloves to taste and 2 level teaspoonfuls baking powder. 
Drop from spoon onto buttered tin in cakes the size of 
a hickory nut. Bake quickly. 

Cocoanut Drops — Mix together the beaten white 
of 1 egg and 1 cup sugar; add 1 tablespoonful flour and 
1 large cup cocoanut; line tin with buttered paper, drop 
from spoon in balls the size of a hickory nut, sprinkle 
w-ith powdered sugai-, and bake 20 minutes in slow oven. 
Macaroons — Mix ^ pound blanched almonds, 
pounded fine, with a little rosewater to moisten, and Jg 
pound sugar; add the whites of 2 eggs, beaten to a stiff 
froth; then, with a little flour on the hands, mold into 
little cakes, and bake in a moderately hot oven. 

Walnut Wafers — Mix 3 even tablespoonfuls 
flour with }4 teaspoonful baking powder, a little salt, 2 
beaten eggs, J^ pound brown sugar, and 1 cupful walnut 
meats broken into small pieces. Drop onto buttered 
paper and bake slowly to a light brown. 

Doughnuts — Mix i}4 cups sugar with 2 beaten 
eggs, 2 cups milk or cream, and flour enough to roll out, 
mixing 1 teaspoonful baking powder with each cup of 
flour. Flavor with nutmeg. Roll quite thin and cut out 
in rings. Fry in a kettle of hot lard to a reddish brown, 
and roll while hot in powdered sugar. 

German Crullers — Mix 2 cups sugar with butter 
the size of an egg, 2 cups milk, 3 beaten eggs, and 
enough flour to roll out without sticking, allowing 1 tea- 
spoonful baking powder to each cup of flour. Flavor 
with nutmeg and cinnamon. Fry in hot lard and dust 
with powdered sugar. 

English Wine Cakes — Work 2 pounds leaf lard 
in the hands on molding board until all the strings are 
removed; add 2 pounds sugar, a little salt, and flour 
enough to roll out in a stiff dough. Cut 14 inch thick 
with small cake cutter, and bake in a moderately quick 
oven. These cookies should be kept in a stone jar from 
a fortnight to a month before using. 

Sugar Cookies — Mix 1^ cup butter with 1 cup 
sugar, 2 beaten eggs, 3 tablespoonfuls sweet milk, and 
flour enough to make a soft dough, in which is mixed 
1 teaspoonful of baking powder to the cup of flour. 
Flavor with a suspicion of nutmeg, mix expeditiously, 
roll thin, sprinkle with coarse gi-anulated sugar (rolling 
it in lightly), cut out, and bake in a quick oven to a light 
brown. 

Molasses Cookies — Mix 1 cup brown sugar with 
1 cup lard; add 1 cup molasses and 1 cup boiling water, 
with 1 teaspoonful soda, 1 teaspoonful ginger, and 14 
teaspoonful powdered alum, put in last. Mix as soft as 
can be rolled and bake in a quick oven. 



Index 

NoTE-Publications listed in the various Bibliographies are here indexed by title and author 
and are indicated by italics. 



Abdominal breathing, defined. ...298 

Aberdeen-Angus cattle 210 

grades, as feeders 255 

Abortion, Contagious 381 

Abortion, defined 371 

Abscesses 364 

Acre, dimensions of 467 

Actinomycosis 350 

Actinomycosis, or Lumpy jaw .29,1 

Adams, J. H 382 

Aeration, see Ventilation. 

Afforestation 133 

African geese 413 

Agricultural experiment sta- 
tions, directory of 404 

Agriculture and Chemistry 45 

Agriculture, general publica- 
tions on 45 

Aikman, C. M .-....'.'.'48, 280 

Air as an element of fertility.... 18 

lack of, in soil H 

Albuminoid nitrogen !.! 10 

Alfalfa gQ 

Alfalfa and the Soil ^"."^ 45 

Alfalfa as green manure 34 

for the silo 400 

Alfalfa, or Lucerne 80 

Alkali Lands 46 

Alkali lands, amendment of 35 

corrected by underdrainage. .. 37 

Alkali spots g 

Alkaline soils, macaroni wheat 

on 55 

salt-bushes for 68 

Allen, C. L 108, 134 

Allen, George Edward 280 

Almond, attacked by crown-gall 182 

Amendments to soil 35 

American Merino, The 280 

American saddler 219 

American Standard of Perfec- 
tion, The 453 

American trotter, carriage 

^ breed 218 

Ammonia, nitrogen as 10 

Ammoniacal copper-carbonate 

solution, fungicide 143 

Anconas, fowls 405 

Angers quince, stock for dwarf 

pears 113 

Angora Goat, Information Con- 
cerning the 280 

Angora Goat, The 280 

Angora Goats, American 280 

Angoumois grain-moth, attack- 
ing stored grain 164 

Angus, polled, as feeders 255 

Animal Breeding 279 

Animal Castration !!!!!!.'..'!381 



Animal diseases, see Diseases 

of Farm Animals. 
Animal reproduction, laws of....229 

Animals, feeding of 238 

Anjou pear, heading back for 

the 124 

Annuals for dry forage 65 

Anthracnose of grape 195 

of raspberry ..196 

Anthrax 343 

Apiary, Manual of the 281 

Aphis black, of peach 182 

of cherry 185 

of beet 159 

woolly, of apple 167 

Appetite, depraved, in rumi- 
nants 306 

Apple Culture 134 

Apple, diseases of 175 

French crab , 112 

fruit maggot of 174 

fruit black rot of 178 

heading back of 123 

Apple, How to Grow the 134 

Apple, insects injurious to — 

apple-fruit maggot 1 74 

apple-leaf bucculatrix 174 

apple leaf-hoppers 168 

apple-leaf plant-lice... 167 

apple-tree tent-caterpillar... 169 

apple twig-borer 1 69 

apple-worm 171 

bud moth 1 74 

buffalo tree-hopper 175 

canker-worms, spring 1 72 

fall 172 

cigar-case bearer 173 

codling-moth 171 

fall webworm 170 

flat-headed apple-tree borer 169 

green fruit worms 172 

leaf-crumpler 1 70 

pistol-case bearer 1 73 

plum-curculio 183 

red spider 175 

round-headed apple-t r e e 

borer 169 

scale insects 186 

seventeen-year locust 174 

woolly aphis 167 

yellow-necked caterpillar.... 170 

Apple, leaf-blight of 176 

leaf spot of 176 

low heads for the 123 

pruning the 123 

Apple, ripe rot of 178 

root-rot of 178 

Apple Rots of Illinois 202 

Apple rust 176 

scab 177 

(500) 



Apple seedlings, nursery for 113 

size to plant 123 

spraying calendar for 166 

stocks, where obtained 112 

strong loam for 112 

thinning fruit of the...^. 131 

tree canker I7g 

twig blight .....!l78 

when injured by cultivation.. 129 

Apricot, attacked by crown 

gall 182 

attacked by peach fruit-spot. 183 

-^rid climates, emmer for 57 

macaroni wheat in 55 

meadow, seed mixture for 70 

Armsby, H. P 280 

Army-worm 147 

, fall "";;;;""i47 

Army-worm, Fall, and Varie- 
gated Cutworm 203 

Arsenical poisons for biting in- 
sects 140 

Arsenite of lead ......"^141 

of lime 141 

Artichokes, culture 62 

for hogs 62 

Ashes, Application of.... 46 

Ash, defined 6, 241 

taken up by roots 6 

Asparagus log 

Asparagus, culture of ! 99 

Asparagus Culture ,,202 

Asparagus, insects injuriousto — 

common asparagus-beetle.. .157 
12-spotted asparagus-beetle. 157 

rust 162 

varieties 100 

best varieties 100 

Atkinson, G. F 109 

Ayrshire cattle, origin Z..!.!213 

Ayrshire cattle 213 

Azoturia 336 



Bach, F. W 279 

Bacon hogs 224 

characteristics of 259 

Bacteria in soil 10 

Bacterial rot of onions 163 

of legumes 9 

Bagworm 199 

Bailev. L. H 

45, 108, 109, no, i34, iSs, 136 

Bailey, L. H., Jr 134 

Baits, poisoned 141 

Balanced rations, compounding 

„ of 243 

Balls, for medication 301 

Bang, B 3g4 

Barred Plymouth Rock 409 

Bark-beetle, fruit-tree 181 



INDEX 



501 



Barley, culture of 56 

smuts 155 

varieties 56 

Barlow, J. B 453 

Barnes and Robinson 108 

Barn itch of cattle 353 

Barnyard Manure 46 

Barnyard manure, best for 

fruits ......130 

effect on rate of evaporation 27 

for alkali spots 8 

for old orchards 132 

for soil ventilation 19 

mode of application 29 

to add humus 26 

with commercial fertilizers... . 

32, 33,225 

Barrv. P 134 

Battersby, J. C 279 

Bav. Cleveland 218 

Be'al, Stephen.............. 454 

Beans, insects injurious to — 

bean ladybird 158 

bean leaf-beetle 158 

Nuttall's blister-beetle 158 

variegated cutworm 156 

western bean-beetle 158 

woolly bear 157 

Beans, bush 94 

pole 93 

soy 51 

velvet, for dry forage 68 

Beans, pole, varieties 94 

Beardman, Samuel L 279 

Bee Culture, ABC of 281 

Beef and Dairy Cattle, Confor- 
mation of 280 

Beef cattle, breeds of 209 

cattle, points of 251 

condition, ideal 250 

form, ideal 249 

making, L. H. Kerrick on. ...283 
Beef Production, Some Essen- 
tials in 280 

Beef quality, conditions influ- 
encing 251 

Beef quality, ideal 250 

Beekeeping 281 

Beetles, May 149 

Beet pulp silage 401 

root-rot 162 

Beets, culture 59 

for trucking 97 

sugar 60 

varieties 59 

Beets, insects injurious to — 

beet aphis 1 59 

pale-striped flea-beetle 158 

red-headed flea-beetle 158 

sugar-beet webworm 159 

Beeves, judging, on the hoof. .251 
Behavior of animals, in diag- 
nosis 300 

Belgian, draft breed 216 

Belgian Hare Breeding 281 

Berkshire, cross with Poland 

China ^. 235 

fat-hog breed 223 

Berry Book, Biggie 134 

Italicized titles 



Bibliographies: Classified and 
annotated lists of publica- 
tions on agricultural topics — 
agriculture, general; till- 
age, fertilization, irriga- 
tion, and drainage 45 

animal husbandry 279 

bees, fish, and miscellaneous 

animals 281 

cattle and dairying 280 

construction and manage- 
ment of silos 403 

diseases of farm animals.. ..381 
field and forage crops, seed 
selection, and the eradi- 
cation of weeds 80 

fruit culture and forestry.... 134 
injurious insects and plant 

diseases 202 

poultry and pigeons 453 

specific vegetable crops, 
truck farming, and the 
marketing of produce.... 108 
sheep and Angora goats. ...280 

swine 281 

the horse 279 

Biggie. J 134 

Bill-bug, corn 146 

Bin, contents of, to estimate.. ..466 
Birds, beneficial and injurious. 140 
Birds, Some Common, in Their 
Relations to Agriculture. ...205 

"Bird's-eye rot" of grape 195 

Bisulphide of carbon fumigation. 142 

Biting insects, poisons for 140 

Bitter-rot of apple 175 

Bitting, A. W 382, 384 

Bitting, A. W. and R. A. Craig 382 

Blackberry, anthracnose of 196 

attacked by rose seals 191 

pruning the 126 

See also Bush Fruits. 

Black Langshares 409 

Black-knot, attacking plum and 

cherry 184 

Black leg 342 

Black peach-aphis 182 

rot, apple- fruit 178 

Black Rot of Cabbage 202 

Black rot of grape 195 

of quince 185 

Black Orpington desirable for 

caponizing 436 

fowls 408 

Black, William 280 

Bladder, inflammation of 323 

Blanching celery 103 

Blight, apple-twig 178 

Blister-beetle, Nuttall's 158 

striped 162 

Blister-mites, pear-leaf ....1 79 

Blisters for animals 302 

Bloating from rape 64 

Bloating, see Tympanitis. 

Blood poisoning 341 

Blotch of apple 176 

Blue grass, injured by bill-Bugs 146 

in mowing land 69 

pastures 291 

Board measure contents of 
square timber 462 



Boar, for breeding bacon hogs.. 259 

for breeding fat hogs 258 

Bog spavin 380 

Boll worm, cotton 154 

Boll Worm of Cotton 202 

Book lists, see Bibliographies. 
Bordeaux mixture, fungicide. ...143 

Paris green with 141 

Bordeaux wash, fungicide 144 

Borer, apple-tree 169 

apple twig 169, 193 

Cottonwood .:?. 200 

grai)e cane 193 

hop- vine 155 

peach-tree 180 

I)oplar 200 

cane, of bush fruits 196 

currant stem 196 

sinuate pear-tree 1 79 

squash- vine 161 

Bot-flies 358 

Bowels, inflammation of 312 

Boxes, to compute capacity of.. 466 

Boyce, S. S 81 

Boyer, M. K 453 

Brahma Light, The 411 

Brahma fowls 41 1 

Braiding wools, defined 273 

Brain, anemia of 330 

congestion of 330 

inflammation of 331 

Breed and type distinguished.. .227 

choice of a .207 

Breeding, advantage of pedi- 
gree in .- ..232 

age to begin, for various ani- 
mals 237 

"Breeding back," or reversion. .232 

Breeding boar, selection of 258 

crossing in 234 

fecundity as factor in.... 233 

good foundation stock in 236 

good, in mutton sheep 261 

grading-up system of.... 234 

important data regarding 237 

in-and-in ._. 235 

law of correlation in 233 

law of heredity in 229 

line - -■ 236 

management of sires in 237 

of immature stock 230 

of mules 23 1 

of seed 74 

phenomenon of reversion in. .232 

prepotency a factor in 229 

relative influence of parents 

in .230, 231 

return for, after parturition. 237 

rules for selection in 227 

stallion and mare for 257 

sterility 367 

Usefulness, period of, in va- 
rious animals 237 

variation in 236 

Breeds of live stock — 

cattle 208 

horses 215 

sheep 219 

swine 223 

of steers for feeding 255 



a>id navies re;fer to publications on ag-ticultural topics 



502 



PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING 



Breeds, The Study of 279 

Brick, how laid 464 

Bridle Bits 279 

Brill. Francis 80 

Broilers for Profit 453 

Broilers, capons 432 

profits in raising 432 

Bronchitis 327 

in swine 357 

Brooder chicks, care of 415 

Brooding artificial, poultry 414 

Brooks, Professor, on feeding 

of animals 239 

Broom Corn and Brooms 108 

Brown Swiss cattle 215 

Brussels sprouts 101 

Bucculatrix, apple-leaf 174 

Buckwheat, as orchard cover 

crop 129 

culture of 58 

Budded seedlings, pruning of. 114 

trees, transplanting 115 

Budding, mechanical process ofll8 
use in fruit-tree propagation. 114 

when performed 114 

Bud moth of apple 174 

worm, tobacco 153 

Buffalo tree-hopper 175 

Buff Orpington fowls 408 

Buhach (pyrethrum) 143 

Bulbs a n d Tuberons-rooted 

Plants 134 

Bumble foot in fowls 447 

Burberry, H. A 135 

Burpee. W. A 279 

Bush beans 94 

Bushel, legal weights of 468 

Bush Fruits 134 

Bush fruits, anthracnose ofl9S, 196 
attacked by four-lined leaf- 
bug 196 

attacked by rose scale. 191 

cane-borers of 196 

cane maggots of 196 

pruning of 126, 127 

saw-fly of 196 

scale insects of 186 

thinning of 131 

Business Hen. The 453 

Butcher's ideal in steer form. .249 

of fat and bacon hogs 258 

of mutton sheep 259 

Butler, T 382 

Butterflies and Moths Injurious 
to Fruit-producing Plants. .202 

Butterfly Book. The 202 

Butterfly, cabbage 159 

C 

Cabbage, culture of 101 

black rot of 202 

brown rot of _.163 

insects injurious to — 

cabbage butterfly 159 

cabbage flea-beetle 160 

harlequin cabbage-bug 159 

Cabbages, Cauliflowers, etc 108 

Calculi, intestinal 317 

Calendar, perpetual 455 

California Fruits, The, and 

Hoiv to Groiv Them 134 

Italicized titles 



"California wash" 142 

Calves, diseases of — 

diarrhea 314 

licking disease 306 

mouth, ulcers in 304 

stomatitis, ulcerative 304 

See also Cattle, Diseases of. 
Canada peas, as orchard green- 
manure 112 

Cane-borers, grape 193 

of bush fruits 196 

Cane-maggots of bush fruits 196 

Canker, apple-tree 178 

treatment 178 

Canker-worms 172, 200 

Capacity of various receptacles, 

to compute 465, 466 

Capillarity, defined 12 

Capillary capacity increased by 

humus 18 

movement, retarded by low 

temperature 19 

water, capacity of soils for 12, 22 
water supply, effect of un- 

der-drainage on 16, 36 

Caponizing, advantages of 431 

care of birds after 438 

care of birds before 436 

instruments for 433 

Capons for Profit 453 

Capped hock, in horses 380 

Capsules, for medication 301 

Carbohydrates, defined 241 

Carbolic acid wash 142 

Carbon Bisulphide as an Insec- 
ticide .- 202 

Carbon bisulphide fumigation. ...142 
Carbon dioxide, poisoning by.. ..402 

taken in through leaves 6 

Card. F. W 134 

Carman, H 453 

Carp Culture, ABC of 281 

Carpentry, handy rules in 462 

Carriage horses, breeds of 218 

Carrots, culture 60 

for trucking 97 

Cary, C. A 382, 383 

Catarrh, acute 325 

causes 325 

gastro-intestinal 306 

Catarrhal fever 339 

Caterpillar, apple-tree tent 169 

attacking cotton 154 

forest tent 199 

yellow-necked, of apple 170 

zebra 159 

Cattle, Disease of 381 

Cattle, diseases of — - 

anthrax 343 

black leg 342 

bot-flies 359 

bowels, inflammation of 313 

catarrh, gastro-intestinal. ...307 
congestion and anemia of 

the brain 330 

croupous pneumonia 329 

diarrhea 315 

foreign bodies in stomachs 311 

gastro-enteritis 313 

heart, inflammation of 324,325 



Cattle, diseases of — 

hydrophobia 344 

indigestion 307 

inflammation of the brain. .331 

influenza 340 

jaundice 318 

licking disease 306 

lockjaw 340 

lumpy jaw 350 

mouth, inflammation of! 304 

omasum, infection of 311 

parasites 352, 359 

peritonitis 319 

pneumonia 329 

reproductive organs, dis- 
eases of 366 

retention of urine 322 

rheumatism 335 

stomach and intestines, in- 
flammation of 313 

stomatitis 304 

tuberculosis 346 

tympanitis 308, 310 

wounds 360 

Cattle, beef, points of 251 

Cattle Breeding 280 

Cattle, breeds of — 

beef 209 

dairy 212 

dual purpose 215 

breeds of, for feeding 255 

dairy, points of 256 

drenching of 301 

Cattle Feeding. Manual of 280 

Cattle, growing, feeding of285,289 

Cattle, Hydrophobia in 381 

Cattle, Market Classes and 

Grades of 280 

Cattle market quotations, sug- 
gestions for interpreting. ..277 

native, feeding of 289 

Cattle, Nitrate of Soda Poison- 
ing of 381 

Cattle, normal temperature in. .299 

pulse of, how taken 298 

Cattle Ranges of the Southwest 80 

Cattle, Scabies in 381 

Cattle, silage for 387 

Cauliflower, culture 102 

brown rot of 163 

causes of 163 

Cecropia 201 

Cedar fungus of apple 176 

Celery culture 102 

Celery for Profit 108 

Cement for various uses. ...464, 465 
Centigrade thermometer scale. .467 

Chains, strength of 469 

Chamberlain, W. 1 48 

Chaveau, A., and G. Fleming. .3S2 

Cheese Making 280 

Cheese Making, ABC in 280 

Cheese Making in Switserland 280 

Chemistry, Agriculture and 45 

Chemistry, Elementary 46 

Chemistry of Soils and Ferti- 
lisers 46 

Chemistry of the Farm 46 

Cherry, attacked by black-knot.. 184 
attacked by fruit rot of pluml85 



arid names refer to fubhcations on agricultural topics. 



INDEX 



503 



Cherry attacked by leaf-spot, see 

under Apple 176 

heading back the 124 

heavy sandy loam for 112 

insects injurious to — 

cherry aphis 185 

cherry maggot 185 

fruit-tree bark-beetle 181 

pear-slug 179 

plum-curculio 183 

scale insects 186 et seq 

low heads for the 124 

Mahaleb stocks for 112 

pruning the 124 

scab 183 

scale 189 

seedlings, nursery for 113 

stocks, where obtained 112 

sweet, Mazzard stocks for. .112 
sweet, when injured by Culti- 
vation : 129 

Cheshire swine 224 

Chester White swine 224 

Cheviot breed of sheep 222 

crossed with Leicester 235 

Chickens, Apoplectiform Septi- 
caemia in 453 

Chickens, Gapes of 453 

Chickens, feeding of 415 

standard varieties of 453 

Chimneys, computations re- 
garding 465 

Chinch-bug 148 

Chinch-bug, The 202 

Chlorosis of grape 195 

Choking 366 

"Cholera," hen 444 

Chorlton, William 135 

Cicada 174 

Cider, apples required for bar- 
rel of 469 

Cider-maker's Handbook 134 

Cigar-case bearer 173 

Cigarette beetle 153 

Cjrcle, area of 465 

Circulatory system, diseases of 323 

Cistern, contents of 466 

Citron, culture 96 

Clapboards required for given 

area 463 

Clay, flocculated by lime 35 

soils, deep plowing of 14 

soils, pore space in 22 

to improve sandy roads 45 

waterholding capacity of 13 

Cleft grafting 117 

Cleveland Bay horses 218 

Click-beetles 145 

Clinton, G. P 202 

Close-breeding, a general term 235 

Clothing wools, defined 273 

Clover as orchard cover crop.. 129 

as orchard green-manure 112 

for the silo 400 

Clover, inoculation of land for 9 

nitrogen, contents of 9 

plowed under 26 

with timothy in rotation 26 

Clover Seed. Red 81 

Clydesdale horses 216 

Italicized titles 



Clyster, how administered 302 

Coach horses, breeds of 217 

Coal in bin, to estimate 466 

Coarse wools, defined 27i 

Coburn, F. D 80, 281 

Coccidium tenellium 446 

prevention of 446 

Cockerels, operation of capon- 

izing 437 

Codling-moth 171 

Coffin-joint lameness 376 

Cold in the head in animals. ...325 
Cold soil, wilting of jilants in.. 19 

Cole crops, for trucking 105 

Coleoptera or Beetles 203 

Colics in the horse 315 

Collingwood. J 453 

Colorado potato-beetle 162 

Colt distemper 338 

gastro-enteritis of 314 

Combination roads 44 

Combing wools, defined 273 

Commercial fertilizers 33 

for orchards 130 

with barnyard manure 225 

Comparative Anatomy of the 

Domestic Animals 382 

Comparative Physiology 382 

Complete fertilizer, defined 130 

Comstock. J. H 204, 205 

Concrete, cement for 465 

Condition of animal in diag- 
nosis 299 

Confused flour-beetle 165 

Conservation of moisture 14 

method for .^ 14 

Consumption 346 

symptoms of 347 

Cook, A. J 135, 281 

Cooking index 470 

Cooking, wholesome, without 

waste 472 

Copperas, to kill weeds 78 

Copper-sulphate solution, fungi- 
cide 143 

to kill weeds 78 

Corn, as fed by L. H. Kerrick..285 
blowing over of, due to root- 
worms , 144 

due to stalk-borers 146 

Corn, Book of 80 

Corn, culture 50 

for dry forage 66 

for soiling 64 

Corn Culture, Indian 80 

Corn Culture in the South 80 

Corn, dwarfed by root-worms .144 
dwarfed, yellowed, and red- 

dened_ by root-lice 146 

evil of injudicious feeding. ...288 
for silage, planting and har- 
vesting of 399 

in crib, to estimate 466 

insects injurious to — 

chinch-bug 148 

corn bill-bugs 146 

corn ear- worm 146 

corn root-louse 146 

corn root webworm 145 

larger cornstalk-borer 146 



Corn, insects injurious to — 

northern corn root-worm.... 144 
in storage, attacked by beetle 165 
marketing in form of beef, 

283, 289, 293 
points in selection of seed... 76 

selection and breeding of 49 

shredding or cutting 67 

smut 156 

sown with rape 64 

sweet, for trucking 106 

sweet, injured by ear-worm. .147 
temperature for germination 19 

Corns, in fowls 447 

in the horse 377 

Correlation, in breeding, de- 
fined 233 

Corrosive sublimate, fungicide. 144 

Cotswold sheep 222 

Cotton Boll, Worm of the 202 

Cotton, insects injurious to — ■ 

caterpillars 154 

cotton boll-worm 154 

cotton-worm 1 53 

cutworms 154 

grasshoppers 1 54 

leaf-hoppers ("sharp-sTioot- 

ers") ...154 

Mexican cotton-boll weevil 154 

plant-lice 1 54 

Cotton, The Manuring of 81 

Cottonseed meal, as fed by Da- 
vid Rankin 295 

as fed by J. P. Stevenson. ...291 

Cottonwood borer 200 

Cottony maple scale 201 

Coughs, cause and classifica- 
tion 299 

Country Homes, Beautifying. ...134 

Cover crops for orchards 129 

Cow, for dairy, how to judge. .256 

Cow-peas 80 

Cow-peas as green-manure 33 

as orchard cover crop 129 

as orchard green-manure 112 

culture S3 

culture for dry forage 68 

culture for soiling : 65 

for the silo 400 

inoculation of soil for 52 

Cow-pea- weevil 166 

Craig, R. A., A. W. Bitting 

and 382 

Cranberries, Cape Cod 134 

Cranberry Culture 134 

Cranberry insects and diseases 196. 

Cresses 10? 

Crib, corn in, to estimate 466 

Crop diseases in fowls 449 

Crops, annual root, for truck- 
ing : 96 

cole, for trucking 101 

elements removed from soil 

by various 24 

field, planting table for 73 

for the silo 399 

grain 49 

hoed, in orchards 128 

main-season, partial-season.... 84 

perennial garden ._. 84 

perennial root, for trucking.. 99 



and names refer to /•u/>ltcatio7ts on agricultural toprcs. 



504 



PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING 



Crops, pulse, for trucking 92 

root 58 

salad, for trucking 102 

soiling 62 

solanaceous, for trucking 104 

tuber and bulb for trucking 88 

vine, for trucking 94 

Cross-Breeding and Hybridis- 
ing 134 

Cross-breeding, defined 234 

Crown-borer, strawberry 197 

Crown-gall of apple 177 

of peach 182 

Crosier, Henderson and 47 

Cucumber, culture 94 

dodder of 163 

downy mildew of 163 

insects injurious to — 

pickle- worm 161 

southern corn-root-worm.... 145 

squash-bug 160 

striped cucumber-beetle 160 

varieties '■ 95 

wilt diseases of 163 

Cultivation for orchards.. ..128, 132 

frequency of 15 

necessity for decreased by 

humus ■.•.-■ 18 

Culture, clean, to prevent in- 
sect ravages 137 

"Cuniculus" 281 

curb, in the horse 380 

Curculio, of plum 183 

Currant, diseases of the 196 

insects injurious to — 

currant saw-fly 195 

currant stem-borers 196 

four-lined leaf-bug 196 

pruning the.. 127 

thinning fruit of 131 

Curtis, D. S 82 

Curtis, George W 279 

Cushman, S 454 

Cutting fodder for silo 401 

Cuttings, fruit propagation by.. 119 

Cutworm, variegated 156 

Cut'cvonn, Variegated, Fall 

Army Worm and 203 

Cutworms 151 

attacking cotton 154 

Cyclopedia of Horticulture 108 

Cylindrical tank, capacity of....465 
Cystitis 323 

D 

Dadd, G. H 279 

Dahlia, Cultivation of the 134 

Dairy Bacteriology, Outlines of2SQ 

Dairy Calf, The 280 

Dairy Cattle, breeds of 213 

cattle, points of 256 

silage relations for 387 

Dairying, American 280 

Dairying, The Chemistry of. ...29,0 

Dairyman's Manual 280 

Darrow, J. W 281 

Darwin, Charles 48 

DeBruin, M. G 383 

Decimal system, principles of 

the 460, 461 

Italicized titles 



Decker, John W 280 

Decomposition promoted by 

underdrainage 36 

warming soil 21 

Dehorning Cattle 382 

Dehorning ivith Chemicals 382 

Delaine merino 220 

wools, defined 273 

Denitrification 11 

Dental Surgery, Veterinary 382 

Depraved appetite in ruminants306 

Destructive green pea-louse 158 

Destructive Locusts 203 

Devon cattle 215 

Diagnosis of animal diseases.. ..297 

Diaphragm, spasms of 299 

Diarrhea 314, 315 

ordinary, in fowls 446 

Digestibility of feeding-stulTs, 

importance of 242 

Digestible nutrients per pound 
of various feeding-stuffs 

(table) 244 

Digestion and growth 242 

processes of 242 

Digestive tract, diseases of the.303 

Dimon, John 279 

Directory of experiment sta- 
tions 404 

Diseases of crops and fruits; 
See under several food- 
plants and trees. 
Diseases of Cultivated Plants 

in Ohio 203 

Diseases of farm animals, clas- 
sified according to animals 
affected; See several ani- 
mals in index. 
Diseases of farm animals- 
behavior of animal, in diag- 
nosis 300 

blisters - 302 

circulatory system, diseases 
of the-^ 

endocarditis 325 

palpitation 323 

pericarditis 324 

clyster, how administered 

condition in diagnosis 299 

coughs, cause and classifica- 
tion 299 

diagnosis, notes on 297 

digestive tract, diseases of 
the— 
bloating, see Tympanitis, 
bowels, inflammation of....312 

calculi, intestinal 317 

catarrh, gastro-intestinal....306 

colics in the horse 315 

depraved appetite 306 

diarrhea 314, 315 

enteritis 312 

foreign bodies in stomach. .311 

gastro-enteritis 312 

hair balls, causing colic 317 

hernia 318 

hoven, see Tympanitis. 

indigestion ._. 306-8 

invagination of the intes- 
tines 318 

lampas of horse 305 



Diseases of farm animals — 

lickii.g disease 306 

mouth, ^ inflammation of, 

see Stomatitis, 
omasum, infection of, in 

cattle 311 

palate, hard, congestion of. 305 

rumen, overloading of 310 

rupture 318 

salivation 305 

scours 314 

stomach, inflammation of.. 3 12 

stomatitis 303, 304 

tympanitis 308, 310 

volvulus 317 

doses 303 

drenching 301 

eczematous diseases — 

grease 335 

prickly heat 333 

scratches 334 

urticaria 334 

enemas, how administered. ...302 

excretions, character of, in 
diagnosis , 300 

friction, medication by 302 

hypodermic injections ....301 

infectious diseases — 

anthrax 343 

black leg 342 

blood poisoning 341 

glanders 345 

hog cholera 348 

hydrophobia 344 

influenza 339 

inhalation, medication by. .302 

lockjaw 340 

lumpy jaw 350 

strangles 336 

swine plague 348 

tuberculosis 346 

lameness — 

causes, symptoms, and 

treatment of 373 

examination for 372 

liniments for 302 

liver, disease of the — 

jaundice 318 

locomotor organs, diseases of 
the — 

articular rheumatism 335 

azoturia 336 

founder (laminitis) 337 

muscular rheumatism .... ...335 

medicine, administration of.. 301 

mucous membranes, state of, 
in diagnosis 300 

nervousness, as a symptom. .300 

nervous system, diseases of 
the — 
brain, congestion and ane- 
mia of 330 

cerebro-spinal meningitis. ...332 

inflammation of ......331 

spinal cord, inflammation 
of ^.......333 

parasites of domestifc ani- 
mals — 

bot-flies 358 

cattle, parasites of 352, 359 



and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. 



INDEX 



505 



Diseases of farm animals — 

horses, parasites of 3S1, 358 

mules, parasites of 351 

sheep, parasites of ....354, 359 

swine, parasites of 356 

peritoneum, disease of the — • 

peritonitis 319 

poultices 302 

pulse, in diagnosis 298 

recognizing various diseases. 297 

rectal injections 302 

rectum, medication per 302 

reproductive organs, diseases 
of the — 

abortion 371 

afterbirth, retention of 369 

leucorrhea 368 

milk fever 369 

sterility 367 

teats, sore, scabby 369 

udder, congestion and in- 
flammation of 368 

vagina, inflammation of. ...367 

vagina, prolapsus of 370 

womb, inflammation of 366 

respirations, in diagnosis 298 

respiratory tract, diseases of 
the — 

bronchitis 327 

catarrh, acute 325 

cold in the head 325 

croupous pneumonia 328 

lungs, hemorrhage from 

the 327 

pleurisy 329 

respiratory organs, exam- 
ination of, in disease 325 

skin, condition of, as symp- 
tom 299 

spasms of diaphragm, breath- 
ing in 299 

stupidity, as a symptom 300 

swellings, in diagnosis 300 

syringe, fountain, use of 302 

temperature, in diagnosis 299 

"thumps," breathing in 299 

urinary organs, diseases of 
the — 
bladder, inflammation of. ...323 
kidneys, aff'ections of the.. 331 

purulent nephritis 322 

urination, frequent 321 

urine, examination of 320 

urine, retention of 322 

wool, condition of 299 

wounds — • 

classification 360 

general treatment 361 

harness injuries 363 

Diseases of Field and Garden 

Crops 203 

Diseases of poultry, see Poul- 
try Diseases. 

Diseases of Poultry, The 453 

Disk, use of 14 

Disking of meadows 69 

of pastures 71 

Ditches, filling, in underdrain- 

age 41 

location of 37 



Ditching for underdrainage 40 

Dodder of cucumbers 163 

Dog, Diseases of the 382 

Dog, how drenched 301 

hydrophobia in '. 344 

normal temperature in 299 

peritonitis in the 319 

pulse of, how taken 298 

Dollar, J. A. W 383, 384 

Dorset horned sheep for lamb 

production 223 

wool production ,..222 

Dorset horned sheep 222 

Doucin stocks for dwarf applesll3 

Downing, A. J 135 

Downy mildew of cucumber....! 63 

of grape 195 

of squash 163 

Draft horses, breeds of 216 

Drainage of highways 43 

natural for orchard Ill 

system, planning 37 

Drainage for Profit and Health 46 

Drains, depth of 38 

frequency of 41 

Draws, drainage of 37 

Dreer, H. A 80, 109, 110 

Drenching 301 

Drilling, advantage over broad- 
casting 55 

Dropsical swellings, in diagno- 
sis 300 

Drought, conservation of moist- 
ure in 27 

quick-growing crops against 

time of 62 

meadows killed by 69 

Dry forage, annuals for 66 

matter iu foodstuffs, defined. .240 
season, utility of underdrain- 

agi; in 17 

Drugs, volatile, how adminis- 
tered 302 

Dual purpose cattle, breeds of.. 215 

Duck Culture 453 

Ducks and Geese 453 

Ducks, breeds of, see Poultry. 

notes on care of 411 

Ducklings, feeding of 412 

DuHays. Weld and 279 

Dxm, Finlay 384 

Duroc-Jersey swine 224 

Dust-mulch, see Soil-mulch. 

Dutch Belter cattle 214 

Dwarf trees, stocks for 113 



Earth and stone roads 44 

roads, construction of 43 

Ear- worm, corn 147 

Eczematous diseases 333 

Egg plant, culture 105 

potato flea-beetle injurious to. 162 
Eggs and Their Uses as Foods 453 

Eggs, feeding for 420 

Eight-spotted forester 194 

F.lcmcntary Chemistry 46 - 

Elevation, desirable for or- 
chard Ill 

Elhvanger, H. B 136 

Elm leaf-beetle 200 



Elm scale 201 

Embanking Lands from River 
Floods, Principles and 

Practice of 46 

Embden geese 413 

Emerson and Flint 45 

Emmer, culture 58 

for arid climates 57 

Emulsion, kerosene 142 

Endocarditis 325 

Energy, food sources of 241 

English Shire horses 216 

English Thoroughbred horses.219 

Enteritis 312 

Entomology for Beginners 203 

Eradication of weeds 77 

Eruptions, summer .> 333 

Ether extract, defined 241 

European fruit-scale 188 

Evaporation a cooling process.. 21 

checking by tilage 14, 15, 16 

in too open soil 18 

rate of, reduced by manure 

18, 27 
Evolution of Our Natii'e 

Fruits, The 134 

Excretions, character of, in 

diagnosis 300 

Experiment stations, agricul- 
tural, directory of 404 

Exporters, demands of, in 

prime steers 252 

Eye Diseases of Domestic Ani- 
mals 382 

P 

Fahrenheit thermometer scale.. 467 

Falconer, William 109 

Fall Army Worm and Varie- 
gated Cutworm 203 

Fall canker-worms 172, 200 

plowing for corn 50 

webworm of apple 170 

Familiar Fish and How to , 

Catch Them 281 

Family Horse, The 279 

Farcy 345 

Farm animals, breeding of 225 

diseases of, see Diseases of 
Farm Aanimals. 

feeding of 238 

leading breeds of 207 

selection of 249 

Farm Boy, Letters to the 279 

Farm Buildings, Practical Sug- 
gestions for 46 

Farm Drainage 46 

Farm garden, the 83 

Farm Gardening and Seed 

Grozving 80 

Farm Poultry 453 

Farm wood lot, care of 132 

Farmer's Veterinary Adviser, 

The 382 

Farming, literature of 1 

Fat, food-sources of 241 

in foodstuffs, defined 241 

Fat hogs, breeds of 223 

characteristics of 258 

points for judging 259 



weight- 223 

Italicised titles and names refer t-o publications on agricultural topics. 



506 



PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING 



Fecundity, conditions affecting..233 

Feeders, buying of 289 

choice, characteristics of 253 

native, preferred by J. P. 

Stevenson 289 

Feeding, Professor Brooks on. .239 
See also Stock Feeding. 

Feeding Animals 279 

Feeding, breeds of cattle for.. ..255 

Feeding, brooder chicks 415 

live stock, business of 227 

Feeding of Animals, The 279 

Feeding of ducklings 412 

Feeding of Farm Animals, The279 

Feeding of goslings 413 

of poultry 420 

of poultry, injudicious....419-423 

of young turkeys 414 

poultry for eggs 419 

standards, German 246 

tables, how to use 247 

Feeds and Feeding 279 

Feeds, mixed, to compute cost 

of 466 

Felch, I. K 454 

Felting wools, defined 274 

Fencing, stuff required for 463 

Fertility, air as an element of 18 

a relative term 24 

Fertility, Loss of 46 

Fertility reduced by loss of 

humus 25 

Fertilization, economy in 33 

F^ertilizer, complete, defined 130 

commercial vs. natural 32 

for orchards 130 

mixed, to compute cost of.. 466 

Fertilisers, Availability of 46 

Fertilisers, Composition and 

Use of 46 

Fertilisers for Market-Garden 

Crops 45 

Fertilisers, Home-Mixing of... 46 

Fertilisers, Mixing of 46 

Fertilizing constituents of food- 
stuffs (table) 244 

removed from soil by various 

crops (table) 24 

Fevers, infection of amosum 

in 311 

inflammation of mouth in....303 
Field crops and grasses, plant- 
ing table for 7i 

cultural directions for 49 

diseases of 155 

insects injurious to 144 

Field peas, culture 53 

Fine soils, advantage of hu- 
mus in 28 

Finley, Root and 281 

l-'ire blight of pear 180 

Fires in timber 133 

Fire-worm, cranberry 197 

Fish Culture, American 453 

Fiske, G. B 109, 454 

Fiske, Mosse and 109 

Fits, James 110 

Fixative, for poisons 141 

Flat-headed apple-tree borer. ...169 

Flatulent colic 315 

Flax, culture 58 

Italicised- titles 



Flax Culture 80 

Flax for Seed and Fiber 80 

Flax-sick soil 58 

Flea-beetle, cabbage 160 

grape-vine 192 

pale-striped 158 

potato 162 

red-headed 158 

tobacco 153 

Fleece, condition of in disease. .299 

in various breeds 272 

Fleece, tags in 275 

Fleming, George 383 

Flies, lace-winged, beneficial... 138 

syrphus, beneficial 138 

Flint, Emerson and 45 

Flocculation, defined 35 

Floriculture, Practical 134 

Florida Fruits 134 

Flour beetle, confused 165 

moth, Mediterranean 164 

Flower Garden, The Beautiful....\Z^ 

Fodder and Forage Plants 80 

Fodder, cutting for silo 401 

Fcetal membranes, retention of. 369 

Foodstuffs, choice of 240 

composition of 240 

fertilizing constituents of 

(table) 244 

various, digestible nutrients 

in (table) 244 

Forage, dry, annuals for 65 

Forage Plants 80 

Forage Plants Other Than 

Grasses 80 

Forage Plants, Southern 80 

Forbes scale 189 

Forbes, S. A 203 

Forcing Book, The 108 

Forcing boxes, use in trucking 

ot rhubarb 100 

Foreign bodies, causingchoking.366 

causing indigestion 306 

causing salivation < 305 

in stomach of cattle 311 

Forest Nursery, The 134 

Forest Planting 134 

Forest tent-caterpillar 199 

Forester, eight-spotted 194 

Forestry for Farmers 134 

Forestry hints 132 

Forestry, Outlines of 134 

Forestry, Practical 134 

Forestry, Piimer of 134 

Formalin fungicide 144 

treatment for grain smuts... 155 
Foul Brood, Lazvs Relative to..2S\ 

Founder 337 

Four-lined leaf-bug 196 

Four-spotted bean-beetle 166 

Fowls; Care and Feeding 453 

Fowls, Roup in 453 

Fowls, see also Poultry. 

various, period of incuba- 
tion in 237 

Free water, defined 12 

removal by underdrainage.... 16 

French coach horse 217 

crab apple 112 

pear stocks 112 

Freezing, effect of, on soil 22 



Friction, medication by 302 

Friedberg and Frohner 383 

Frost, effecting orchards Ill 

danger from, on low land..lll 

Fruit Culture 134 

Fruit Culture and Forestry....! 11 
Fruit Culturist, The Americanize 
Fruit, dried, quantity of fresh 

fruit for 469 

Fruit Garden, The 134 

Fruit gardens, cultivation for.. 128 
Fruit Grower, The Practical. Ai'^ 
Fruit Growing, The Princi- 
ples of 135 

Fruit-maggot of apple 174 

Fruit Packages 135 

Fruit-scales 186 

Fruit-spot of peach 183 

of quince 180, 186 

Fruit, thinning of 130 

worms, green 172 

Fruit-tree bark-beetle 181 

Fruit trees, budded, transplant- 
ing of 115 

diseases of 166 

insects injurious to 166 

low heads for certain 114 

number to acre 120 

planting of 128 

pruning of 121 

seedlings of 112, 113 

wounds in 120 

Fruits and Fruit Trees of 

America 135 

Fruits, propagation and plant: 

ing, table for 120 

cuttings and layering .....119 

Fruits, Recommended, Ameri- 
can Pomological Society's 

Catalogue of 136 

Fruits, spraying of 166 

Fuller, Andrezv S 134, 135, 136 

Full feed, caution in approach- 
ing 291 

Fulton, A. W 281 

Fulton, J. A 136 

Fumigation for insects 142 

Fumigation Methods 203 

Fungicides — 

ammoniacal copper-carbon- 
ate solution 143 

Bordeaux mixture 143 

Bordeaux wash 144 

copper-sulphate solution 143 

corrosive sublimate 144 

formalin 144 

Fungi, how injurious to plants 138 

mode of reproduction ..131 

Fungi, Some Edible and Poi- 
sonous .,. 1 10 

Fvingous diseases, immunity of 

orchards from, on hillsideslll 
Fungus, shot-hole of plum 184 

G 

Galling by harness 363 

Galloway cattle 211 

cross with Shorthorn 235 

Galloways, as feeders 255 

age for feeding 255 

condition for feeding 255 



and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. 



INDEX 



507 



Gapes in fowls 443 

Garden, arrangement of 84 

Garden crops, diseases of 162 

insects injurious to 156 

Garden Making 108, 135 

Garden webworm 159 

Gardening, essentials in 83 

Gardening for Pleasure 135 

Gardening for Profit 108 

Gardening, see also Trucking. 

Gas insecticides 142 

Gastro-enteritis 312 

Gastro-intestinal catarrh 306 

Geese, breeds of, see Poultry. 

Geese, notes on care of 413 

German coach horse 218 

German feeding standards 246 

Germination, hastened by roll- 
ing 16 

temperature for 19 

Germination of Seeds as Af- 
fected bv Commercial Fer- 
tilisers .'. 80 

Germs in soil ^.... 10 

Gestation calendar, for various 

animals 238 

period of, in various animals. .237 

Gillet, C. P 384 

Ginseng 108 

Gipsy moth 198 

Gipsy Moth in America 203 

Glanders 345 

Glanders 382 

Glcason. Oscar R 279 

(jluten meal, as fed by L. H. 

Kerrick 287 

Goat, normal temperature in. ...299 

pulse of, how taken 298 

Gobaux, A., and G. Barrier. ...3S2 

Gaff. E. S 48, 136 

Good roads, how made 42 

importance of 42 

Good Seed, The Farmer's In- 
terest in 80 

Gooseberry, pruning the 127 

red-headed, flea-beetle of ...158 

Goslings, feeding of 413 

Government agricultural pub- 
lications, how to obtain.... 1 
Grade animals, importance of 

pedigree in 232 

Grade for tile laying, to es- 
tablish 39 

Grading-up, defined 234 

Grafting, mechanical process of.116 

months for 117 

season for 116 

uses in fruit-tree propaga- 
tion 115 

wax for 119 

Grain-beetle, saw-toothed 165 

square-necked 165 

Grain-cropping, continuous 26 

Grain crops 49 

Grain in bin, to estimate 466 

Grain-moth, Angoumois 164 

Grain smuts, general treat- 
ment for 155 

Grain Smuts, The 203 

Grains and seeds in storage, 

insects injurious to 164 

Italicized titles 



Grains, insects injurious to — 

army- worm 147 

cutworms 151 

fall army-worm 147 

grasshoppers 1 49 

wire worms 145 

See also Various Crops. 

(jrains. weeds in 78 

Granary weevil 165 

Grange, E. A. A 382, 384 

Granulation, healing by 360 

Grape, anthracnose of 195 

"bird's-eye rot" of 195 

black rot of 195 

chlorosis of 195 

Grape Ciiltiirist, The •. 135 

tirape, diseases of the 194 

downy mildew of the 195 

form for planting 125 

Grape Grower's Guide, The. ...135 

Grape-g rolling in the South 135 

Grape-groxnng and M'ine-mak- 

ing 135 

(irape, insects injurious to — 

apple twig-borer 169, 193 

eight-spotted forester 194 

grape-berry moth 194 

grape cane-borer 169. 193 

grape leaf-folder 194 

grape leaf-hopper 193 

grape root-worm 192 

grape-vine flea-beetle 192 

grape-vine phylloxera 193 

grape-vine saw-fly 194 

red-headed flea-beetle 158 

rose-chafer 194 

scale insects 186 et seq 

Grape, Kniffin system of train- 
ing 125 

powdery mildew of the 195 

pruning and training the....l25 

spraying of the 195 

thinning fruit of the 131 

trellises for the 125 

"yellow leaf" of 195 

Grape-training, American 135 

Grasses, American 80 

Grasses and Clover 80 

Grasses, field crops and, plant- 
ing table for 73 

insects injurious to — 

army- worm 147 

beet aphis 159 

corn bill-bugs 146 

cutworms 151 

fall army-worm 147 

grasshoppers 149 

white grubs 149 

wire worms 145 

Grasses, The True 80 

Grasshoppers 149 

attacking cotton 154 

Gravel roads 44 

Gray African geese 413 

Grease in the horse 335 

Green arsenoid 140 

bait, for insects 141 

Green, fruit-worms 172 

Greenhouse Construction 108 

Greenhouse Management 109 

Green-manure, cow-peas as 33 



Green-manuring 26 

for soil ventilation 19 

Green, S. B 110 

Green, Seth 281 

Greinier, T 108, 109, 453 

Griffiths. A. B 48 

Gross, Emanuel 81 

Ground-beetles, beneficial to 

farmer 138 

Grout silos 394 

Grubs, strawberry 197 

white 149 

Guernsey cattle 213 

Curler, H. B 280 

Gypsum for alkali lands 8, 35 

H 

Hackel, Edward 80 

Hackney horses 218 

Hair balls, causing colic 317 

Hair for plastering 465 

amount required for barrel 

of lime 465 

hundred yards lathing 465 

Hampshire sheep 221 

Hand, Thomas J 280 

Handy rules and useful infor- 
mation 456 

Harcourf, Helen 134 

"Hardening off" before trans- 
planting 86 

Hardin, L. S 280 

Harlequin cabbage-bug 159 

Harness injuries 363 

Harris, Joseph 281 

Harrow, for orchards 129 

use of 14 

Harrowing to ventilate soil 18 

Hart, C. A ._, 203 

Hatton, IV. J : 136 

Hay in stack, to estimate 466 

mow, capacity of 466 

Heading back, to hasten fruit- 
fulness 124 

Pleads, low. for pears, cher- 
ries, and plums 114 

Healing of wounds, modes of.. 360 

Heart, inflammation of 324 

palpitation of ....323 

Heat, food sources of 242 

generation of, in soil by de- 
composition ..; 21 

pimples 333 

Heats, duration of, in various 

animals 237 

Hedges. Windbreaks, and Live 

Shelters 135 

Heinrich, Julius J 136 

Hellebore 143 

Hemiptcra, or Bugs 203 

Hemorrhage from the lungs....327 

Hemp 81 

Hen "cholera" 444 

Henderson and Crosier 47 

Henderson, PeferAOS, 134, 135,136 

Henry, W. A 279 

Herbert, Henry William 279 

Heredity, defined 229 

Hereford cattle 210 

Herefords, as feeders 255 

Hernia 318 



J- a}id names refer to fiitblicatiovs on agricultural tp/>ics. 



508 



PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING 



Hessian fly 148 

Hessian Fly, The 203 

Hessian fly, wheats resistant 

to 54 

Hewson, William 46 

Hexamer, F. M 108 

Hickman, J. F 382 

Hilgard, E. W 81 

Hillhouse, Lizzie Page 135 

Hillsides, boggy, drainage of.. 38 

Hinebauch, T. D 382, 383 

Hive and Honey Bee 281 

Hoare, E. W 384 

Hocks, "tied in" 381 

Hog cholera 348 

Hog Cholera 382 

Hog Cholera and Swine Plague.3S2 

Hog, Diseases of the 382 

Hog-raising in the South 281 

Hogs, artichokes for 62 

bacon, selection of boar 259 

breeds of 223 

fat, selection of boar 258 

following steers „ 291 

Hogs. Soaps as a Cause of 

Death Among 382 

Holland turkeys, white 414 

Holland, W. J 202 

Holstein-Friesian cattle 214 

Home Fishing and Home 

Waters 281 

Home Pork Making 281 

Honey Bee, The 281 

Hop Culture in California 81 

Hop plant-house 155 

Hop. The 81 

Hopkins and Rumsey 204 

Hopper, contents of 466 

Hopperdozer, use of 150 

Hops 81 

Hop-vine borer 155 

Horn worm 152 

Horse-radish 100 

Horse Book, American Re- 
formed ^79 

Horse Book, The American 

Farmers' 279 

Horse Breeding 279 

Horse, Diseases of the 382 

Horse, diseases of the — 

azoturia 336 

bog-spavin 380 

bot-flies 358 

bronchitis, acute 327 

capped hock 380 

catarrh, acute 325 

catarrh, gastro-intestinal....306 

catarrhal fever 339 

cerebro-spinal meningitis.. ..332 

coffin joint lameness 376 

colics 315 

colt distemper 338 

congestion and anemia of 

the brain 330 

corns 377 

croupous pneumonia 328 

curb 380 

diarrhea 315 

founder 

frequent urination 321 

gastro-enteritis 312 

Italicized titles 



Horse, diseases of the — 

glanders 345 

grease 335 

harness injuries 363 

heart, inflammation of 

324, 325 

hydrophobia 344 

indigestion 306 

inflammation of the brain. .331 

influenza 339 

jaundice 318 

lameness, examination for.. 372 

laminitis Zil 

lampas 305 

lockjaw 340 

lumpy jaw 350 

Monday morning disease. .336 

mouth, inflammation of 303 

muscular rheiimatism 330 

navicular disease 376 

palpitation of the heart 323 

parasites 351, 358 

patella, luxation of 378 

peritonitis 319 

pink-eye 339 

prickly heat 333 

quartercracks 377 

reproductive organs, dis- 
eases of 366 

retention of urine 322 

ring-bone 375 

sandcracks Till 

scratches 334 

shoulder lameness 373 

sidebones 376 

sore throat 325 

spavin 379 

splints 374 

sprains 365, 374 

"stifle out" 378 

stomach and intestines, in- 
flammation of 312 

stomatitis 303 

stomatitis, ulcerative 303 

strangles 338 

teething 305 

"thumps" 323 

wounds 360 

Horse, How to Judge a 279 

Horse, Influenza in 383 

Horse Keepers, Hints to 279 

Horse, Lameness of 383 

Horse, normal temperature in. 299 

points of 257 

pulse of, how taken 298 

selection of 257 

Horse, Sound and Unsound 383 

Horse, Stonehenge on the 279 

Horse. The 279 

Horse, The Clinical Diagnosis 

of Lameness in the 382 

Horse, The Exterior of the 382 

Horse, The Foot of the 383 

Horse, The, Hozv to Buy and 

Sell 279 

Horses and Horse Breeding, 

American 279 

Horses and Mules, Colic in 383 

Horses and Mules. Lameness »m..383 

Horses, breeds of 216 

carrots for 60 



Horses, Cattle, Sheep and 

Szvine 279 

Horses, Enzootic Cercbritis of. .393 

Horses, how drenched 301 

silage for 388 

Horses. Millet Disease in 383 

Horses, The Examination of, 
as to Soundness and Se- 
lection as to Purchase 383 

Horseshoeing 383 

Horseshoeing, A Hand Book of3S3 

Horticulture, Annals of 135 

Horticulture, Cyclopedia of 108 

Horticulture, General, Hand 

Book of 136 

Horticulturist's Rule Book 135 

Hotbeds, location and construc- 
tion of 86 

Hot-water treatment for grain 

smuts 155 

how used 155 

when used 155 

Household Insects 203 

House Plants and How to Suc- 
ceed with Them 135 

Houston, E. H 134 

Hoven, see Tympanitis. 

Howard, L. 204 

Howden, Peter 279 

How to Make the Garden Pay. .109 
Humid climates, meadow seed 

mixture for 70 

pasture seed mixtures for 72 

Humus 46 

Humus, as conserver of moisture 18 
contents of soils, how in- 
creased 29 

defined 6 

effect of, on soil conditions.. 

19, 21, 25-29 

Hunt, Morrow and 48 

Husmann, George 135 

Hydraulic rams 469 

Hydrocyanic-acid gas 143 

Hydrophobia 344 

Hygroscopic water, defined...... 1 2 

Hypodermic injections 301 



Icterus 318 

Immature stock, breeding of.. ..230 

Implements for gardening 85 

for orchard tillage 129 

In-and-in-breeding, defined 235 

Incubation, period of, in vari- 
ous fowls 237 

Incubators 414 

Indian-meal moth 164 

Indigestion in animals 306 

causes of 306 

Infectious diseases of domestic 

animals 338 

Influenza 339 

Inhalation, medication by 302 

Injections, rectal 302 

Injurious Insects, Laws Con- 
cerning 205 

Inoculation for black leg 342 

for lockjaw 341 

for tuberculosis 347 

of soil 9, 52 



and flames refer to pttblications on agrictdtural topics. 



INDEX 



509 



Insecticides against biting in- 
sects 140 

against sucking insects 142 

gases and other 142 

Insect Book, The 204 

Insect Enemies of the Grape... .204 

Insect Life 204 

Insects Affecting Domestic Ani- 
mals 204 

Insects Affecting the Cotton 

Plant 204 

Insects .Affecting the Tobacco 

Plant 204 

Insects, beneficial 138 

gnawing and sucking distin- 
guished 138 

injurious, parasites of 138 

Insects Injurious to Farm and 

Garden Grot's 204 

Insects Injurious to Fruits 204 

Insects Injurious to Garden 

Crops 204 

Insects Injurious to Garden 

and Orchard Crops 204 

Insects Injurious to Ornamen- 
tal Plants 204 

Insects Injurious to Staple 

Crops 205 

Insects Injurious to Stored 

Grain 164 

Insects injurious to various 
crops and fruits. See un- 
der several food-plants and 
trees. 
Insects Liable to be Distribut- 
ed on Nursery Stock 205 

Insects, Study of 205 

Intensified farming on high- 
priced lands 284 

Interest, to compute 462 

Intestinal worms. .351, 352, 354, 356 
Intestines, function in digest- 
ive process 243 

invaprination of 318 

Investigations Concerning In- 
fectious Diseases Among 

Poultry 453 

Iron essential in soil 7 

Irrigation for the Farm. Gar- 
den, and Orchard 135 

Irrigation in humid climates... 13 

Irrigation, Winter Orchard 46 

Itch, barn, of cattle 353 

Texas, in horses 352 

J 

Japanese pear stocks 112 

Jarchow, H. N 134 

Jaundice 318 

symptoms of 319 

Jersey cattle 212 

Johnson, S. W _ 47 

Johnson. W. G 203 

Jones, B. IV 81 

Jordan, IV. H 279 

Judging Live Stock ....279 

Judging of live stock — 

choice feeders, characteris- 
tics of 253 

dairy cow, how to judge... .256 

hogs, bacon 259 

Italicized titles 



Judging of livestock- 
hogs, fat 258 

horse, how to judge 257 

judging beeves on the hoof251 

points of beef cattle 251 

points of dairy cattle 256 

points of the horse 257 

points of the pig 259 

points of the sheep 259 

prime steers, characteris- 
tics of 249 

sheep, mutton, characteris- 
tics of 259 

sheep, mutton, selecting 

ram to breed 261-267 

June bugs 149 

Juniper, harboring apple-rust.... 176 

K 

Kafir-corn 81 

Kafir-corn, culture 51 

for soiling 63 

Kains, Maurice G 108 

Kerosene emulsion 142 

Kerrick, L. H., on beef making283 

Kidneys, diseases of 321 

Kidney worm in swine 357 

Killebrczv and Myrick 82 

King, Franklin H 45, 47 

Kitchen Garden of One Acre. .109 
Kniffin system of grape-train- 
ing 125 

Kohlrabi culture 61, 102 



Lace-vvinged flies, beneficial 138 

Ladybird, bean 158 

Ladybirds, beneficial 138 

Lambs, diseases of — 

licking disease 306 

mouth, ulcers in 304 

See also Sheep. 

Lameness, coffin joint 376 

examination for 372 

locating 372 

shoulder 373 

Laminitis 337 

Lampas of the horse 305 

Landrcth, Burnett 109 

Landscape Gardening 135 

Langshan crosses for caponiz- 

ing 409 

fowls 409 

Langstroth. L. L 281 

Larger Applc-Tree Borers 205 

Lathing, materials for 465 

Law, James 382, 384 

Lawns, injured by fall army- 
worm 147 

by white grubs 149 

making and care of 106 

seeding of 107 

Laxative, root crops as a 58 

Layering, fruit propagation bv..ll9 

Lead, arsenite of 141 

Leaf-beetle, bean 158 

elm 200 

Leaf-blight of apple 176 

of seedlings, prevention of.... 114 
Leaf-crnmpler of apple 171 



and names refer to publications on agricultural t»pics. 



Leaf-curl of peach 182 

Leaf-folder, grape 194 

Leaf-hopper, grape 193 

apple 168 

attacking cotton 154 

Leaf-spot of apple 176 

of quince 180, 186 

Lecanium of the peach.... 186, 191 

Leeks 92 

Legal weights per bushel 468 

Leghorn, undesirable for ca- 

ponizing 410 

fowls 416 

Legumes as green manure 33 

as nitrogen-gatherers 9 

as orchard cover crop 129 

in rotations 30 

roots of, in soils 23 

Leguminosae 92 

Leguminous Plants 81 

Leicester sheep 222 

cross with Cheviot 235 

Lettuce 102 

Leucorrhea J..368 

Level culture, to conserve 

moisture 16 

land, drainage of 37 

Liautard, A 381, 385 

Lice, on cattle 353 

on hogs 357 

on horse and mule 351 

on poultry r.450 

Licking disease in ruminants. 306 
Lilac, attacked by stem-borers. .196 

Lime, Application of 46 

Lime, arsenite of 141 

for masonry 464 

for plastering ,465 

sulphur, and salt wash 142 

to amend soils 35 

Lincoln sheep 223 

Line-breeding, defined 236 

Liniments 302 

Literature of farming 1 

Little peach disease 183 

"Little Turk" 183 

Liver, diseases of the 318 

Live-stock, breeds of 207 

feeding, business of 227 

judging of 249 

Lockjaw 340 

Locomotor organs, diseases of 

the 335 

Locust, attacked by walnut 

scale 202 

seventeen-year 174 

Lodeman, E. G 136, 205 

Lodging of oats, remedy for.... 56 

London purple 140 

Long, Elias A 136 

Loose smut of oats and wheat.. 156 
Lowland, danger from frost on 111 

Lugger, Otto 202, 203, 205 

Lumbering, handy rules in 462 

Lumpy jaw 350 

Lungs, hemorrhage from the.... 327 

Lung worms 353 

Lupton, J. Irvine 383 

Luxation of the patella 378 



510 



PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING 



M 



Macadam roads '^4 

Macaroni wheat, culture 3S 

Maggot, of cherry. ...^ l»^ 

cane, of bush fruits jvo 

Mahaleb cherry stocks H- 

Main-season crops o^ 

Mange in horses •'^^ 

Mangel beets - ^^ 

Mangel-wurzels, see Beets. 
Mangolds, see Beets. 

Manual of Agriculture -.- ^3 

Manure, barnyard, best loi" 

fruits '"^^ 

liquid, absorbents for 31 

See also Barnyard Manure. 
Manurial values of various 

feeding-stuffs (table) 244 

Manuring of Cotton, The 81 

Maple scale, cottony ^ -^^i 

Maple Sugar and the Sugar 

jBiish ^^^ 

Mare for breeding, selection of.257 

Marianna plum stock ;— H, 

Market animals, breeding of.-..^^/ 
Market Gardener, The i oung.Wi 
Market Gardening and Farm 

Notes - ^09 

Market quotations, cattle, "ow 

to interpret 277 

Marketing broilers , 4^/ 

Marketing Farm Produce 109 

Marsh, C. E 384 

Marshall, C. E 381 

Martin, George A ^^^ 

Marvin, Charles ^'^ 

Masonwork, handy rules for. ...404 
Mastication, function in digest- 
ive process 24J 

Mathews, F. S J34 

May beetles 

Maynard, S. T ""ViV 

Mayo, N. S 381 

McCarthy, E 

McClure, Robert 279 

Meadoivs and Pastures in the 

Middle Eastern States 81 

Meadows, nurse crops for 70 

Meadows, seed mixtures for.... 70 

Meal-moth, Indian -;•--.,■ 1°; 

Measure, apothecaries fluid 4i/ 

circular ^^° 

cubic y/- 

dry 457 

linear - 456 



Melons, insects injurious to— 

southern corn-root-worm.... 145 

squash-bug - ■ J°0 

striped cucumber-beetle loU 

Melons, wilt diseases of 163 

Meningitis, cerebro-spinal i^^ 

Merino. American ^i^ 

Delaine -■ /■^" 

grades, common stock °* _ 

America ^68 

Rambouillet .2-0 

Metric and common weights 
and measures, equivalents.. 459 

system at a glance 460 

Metritis ..-.. .- fo^ 

Mexican cotton-bol weevil. l34 

Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil 205 

Milch Cows, Guenon on -■— ,^, 

Mildew, downy |oJ 

powdery, of grape i^s 

Miles E P ^ 

Miles', Manley 48, 279, 403 

Milk and its Derivatives, Ex- 
amination of -80 

Milk and its Products 2S0 

Milk fever ■■■■- --^^^ 

Milk, Its Nature and Compo- 
sition 280 

Milk, quarts and pounds of 469 

Miller, H. H 28 

Miller, H. O. ■- 281 

Millet, culture for dry forage.. 67 

Millets. The ,°l 

Mills, Wesley • .---^s^ 

Milo Maize, culture for dry 



Miiller, George -. 382 

Mushrooms, Edible and Poison- 
ous ]na^' 

Mushrooms, Hoiv to Grow JOS' 

Muskmelons -. =«^^ 

Mutton and wool-growing com- 
bined, profit in - 268 

Mutton. Raising Sheep for ^m 
Mutton ram, selecting....... .261-26/ 

sheep, characteristics of 259 

Myrabolan plum stocks 112 

Myrick, Herbert 80, 81. 454 

Myrick, Killebrezv and 82 

N 
Nails required for various pur- 
poses . 

to the pound. 4b4 

kinds and sizes •— i 

"Narrow" nutritive ratio, de- 
fined ■■■■■■ 

Native cattle, feeding of 



( 



463 



.464 



243 
289 



disease 376 

.300 



Navicular 

Nephritis, purulent 

Nervousness, symptoms 
ease 



of dis- 



forage 



67 



.149 
.134 
383 
.281 



Mineral elements of plant food 6 
Minnesota experiment station, 

humus tests at .- 26 

Minnesota. Orthoptera of 205 

Miscarriage, causes of ■i'J- 

defined -/''I 

Mixed farming, advantages ot 

31, 225, 2oo 

feeds, to compute cost of 466 

Moisture, conservation o{.A4 et scq 

in soil, effect of humus on... 27 

eflfect of underdramage on 36 

Mo Her H ^^^ 

Monday morning disease 336 

Monrad, J. H 280 

Moore, V. A 38^ 

Morris, Thaddeus 2»i 

Morrow and Hunt 48 

Morton, Scott and 48 

Mosse and Fiske 1^^ 



Nervous system, diseases of the330 

Neumann, L. G... 38J 

New Industry, A - 280 

Niles, E. P 384 

Nitrates, defined '" 

nitrogen as j" 

"Nitre farming" J" 

Nitric acid, nitrogen as jU 

Nitrification, defined 1" 

Nitrogen, forms in soil 9 

free ^" 

gathered by legumes..... -. 9 

lack of in soil, how indicated 11 

Nitrous acid, nitrogen as 10 

Nodular disease ^^^ 

Noils, defined 274 



Northern corn-root-worm 



.144 



linear ;■_- j^ji/jji >."" - '" ., " j lOQ 

liquid 457 Moth, brown-tailed --1^^ 



456 

square .- y" 

surveyor's, or chain 450 

surveyor's surface -456 

Measures of length, occasional 456 

of surface, occasional 456 

of weight, see Weight. 

Meat Inspection •■ .•-383 

Mechanical structure of soil... -J 

Medicine, administration of 301 

Mediterranean flour-moth 164 

Melons, How to Grow for 

Market 10^ 

Melons, insects injurious to 
pickle-worm 



grape-berry 



Nubbins of corn, due to root- 
worms ■ ^Zl 

Nurse crops for meadows /u 

Nursery Book, The .....U5 

Nursery for fruits, preparation 

of 113 

Nut Culture in the United 

States 135 

Nut Culturist. The ,;; 

Nutrients, disgestible, per lb. 

of various feeding-stutts 

(table) .^.-.. .- 244 

Nutritive ratio, defined 24^ 

Nuttall's blister beetle 15» 



.IS 



.161 



white-marked tussock .._. -.-.197 

Mouth, sore, in various animals. 30J 

Mows, capacity of 466 

Mucous membranes, state oi- 

in diagnosis 300 

Muffle-heads, of hops 155 

Mulch, to check evaporation 

14, 15, 16 

Mules, breeding of -•.-■231 

diseases of, see Horses, Dis- 
eases of. 
parasites of 351 



O 



culture 



Oats and field peas, 

for dry forage , o8 

as orchard cover crop l^o 

chinch-bug, injurious to..; 148 

culture ^^■ 

lodging of ^° 

loose smut of .- i^" 

varieties compared 53 

vetches with «» 

Obstetrics. Bovine ^°^ 

Obstetrics. Veterinary oxii 



"italicized titles and names refer to fuhlications on agrictdUtral tofics. 



INDEX 



511 



Obstructions in intestines, col- 
ics due to...., 317 

Oestrum, duration of, in vari- 

our animals 237 

Oil meal, as fed by L. H. Ker- 

rick ; 287 

Omasum, infection of, in cattle311 

Onion, bacterial rot of 163 

culture 91 

sets 92 

Onion Culture 109 

Onions for Profit 109 

Onions, Hozv to Raise Them 

Profitably ; ,..109 

Onions, slippery ..163 

varieties 92 

Operative Veterinary Surgery, 

Manual of 383 

Orange, pruning the 127 

Orchard, nursery for 113 

care after maturity 130 

cover crops for 129 

cultivation for 128 

fertilizers for 130 

hoed crops in 128 

old, renovation of 132 

planting and tilling the 128 

preparation of soil for 112 

site for Ill, 138 

soil for Ill 

spraying in 131, 166 

tillage implements 129 

Orchid Cultivator's Guide Book, 

The Amateur 135 

Organic matter in foodstuffs, 

defined 241 

nitrogen , 10 

Ornamental Gardening for 

Americans 136 

Orpington fowls, Buff 408 

Orthoptera. or Grasshoppers, 

etc., of Minnesota 205 

Osier Culture 136 

Osmosis 7, 19 

Outlet for drain, selecting 37 

"Overdone" cattle, cause of 

condition 288 

Overflow on lands, prevented 

by underdrainage 37 

Overloaded stomach, colic due 

to 316 

rumen 310 

Oxford breed, result of cross. .235 

Oxford sheep 221 

t)xygen, necessary in soil 18 

taken in through leaves 6 

Oyster-shell scale 189, 202 

P 

Packard, A. S 203 

I'ackers, demands of, in prime 

steers 252 

Paige, J. B 381 

Paint for given area 463 

Palate, hard, congestion of, in 

horse 305 

Pale-striped fiea-beetle 158 

Palmer, J. A _...109 

Palpitation of the heart 323 

Paradise stocks for dwarf ap- 
ples 113 

Italicized titles 



Paragrene 1-40 

Parasites and Parasitic Diseases 

of Domestic Animals 383 

Parasites, external, of domes- 
tic animals. .351, 353, 355, 357 
intestinal, of domestic ani- 
mals 351, 352, 354, 356 

of injurious insects 138 

Parents, relative influence of, 

in breeding 230 

Paris green 140 

Bordeaux mixture with 141 

Parsnips 98 

Parsons, Samuel B 136 

Partial-season crops 84 

Parturient paresis 369 

Parturition, return for breed- 
ing after 237 

Pasteurisation 28G 

Pasteur treatment for hydro- 
phobia 345 

Pastures, permanent 71 

seed mixtures for 72 

Patella, luxation of 378 

Pathology and Therapeutics of 

the Domestic Animals 383 

Peach, brown rot of 183 

crown gall of 182 

Peach Culture 136 

Peach, diseases of 182 

fruit-spot 183 

Peach Gro7ci:ig for Market 136 

Peach, heading back the 124 

Peach, heavy .sandy loam for.... 112 
insects injurious to — ■ 

black peach-aphis 182 

bud moth 174 

fruit-tree bark-beetle 181 

green fruit-worms 172 

peach-tree borer 180 

plum-curculio 183 

s:ale insects IS6 et seg 

Peach Leaf-curl 205 

Peach, leaf-curl of 182 

lecanium 186, 191 

little-peach disease of 183 

low heads for the 124 

pits, planting of 113 

pruning the 124 

seedings, nursery for 113 

size to plant 124 

spraying calendar for 180 

stocks 112, 113 

thinning fruit of the 131 

Peach Twig-borer 205 

Peach-yellows 182 

Peach Yellows and Peach Ros- 
ette 205 

Peacock, Laurence K 134 

Peanut Plant. The :.. 81 

Peanuts: Their Culture and 

Uses 81 

Pear, attacked by apple-fruit 

black rot 178 

by apple-twig blight 180 

by leaf-spot 176 

blight 180 

clay loam for 112 

Pear Culture for Profit 136 

Pear, diseases of 180 

fire-blight of 180 



Pear, heading' back the 124 

insects injurious to — 

apple-tree tent-caterpillar.... 169 

cigar-case bearer 173 

codling-moth 171 

green fruit worms 172 

pear-leaf blister 179 

pear-slug 197 

pistol-case bearer 173 

plum-curculio 183 

red-headed flea-beetle 158 

scale insects 186 et seq 

sinuate pear-tree borer 179 

low heads for the 123 

pruning the 123 

seedlings, nursery for 113 

stocks, where obtained 112 

thinning fruit of the 131 

when injured by cultivation.. 129 
Peas, Canada, as orchard green- 
manure 1 12 

cow, as orchard green-ma- 
nure 112 

cow, culture 52 

field 53 

for trucking 92 

insects injurious to — 

destructive green pea-louse 158 

Nuttall's blister-beetle 158 

variegated cutworm 156 

woolly bear 157 

Peas-and-oats for soiling 64 

for dry forage \ 68 

Pea-weevil igs 

Pedigree in grade animals 232 

what constitutes a good 233 

Pekin ducks 411 

Peppers 105 

Perch er on Horse, The, in Amer- 
ica and France 279 

Perennial crops 84 

Pericarditis 324 

Periodical Cicada ......205 

Peritonitis 319 

Perpetual calendar 455 

Persian insect powder 143 

Persimmons 136 

Phosphates 46 

Phylloxera, grape-vine 193 

Physical defects in soils, how 

remedied 22 

Physics of Agriculture 45 

Pickle- worm 161 

Picklock wools, defined 273 

Pig, points of the 259 

Pig, The 281 

Pigeon Keeper, Practical 453 

Pigeon Queries 453 

Pigs, breeds of 223 

selection of boar 258 

Pineapple Growing 136 

Pink-eye 339 

Pin worms 251, 356 

treatment for 356 

Pistol-case bearer 173 

Pitch of roof, defined 463 

Placenta, retention of 369 

Plant Breeding 109 

Plant Culture, Principles of. ...136 
Plant-feeding, retarded by low 
temperature 19 



and na)nes refer to pulilicatiovs on agricttlturOt topics. 



512 



PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING 



Plant food, abundance neces- 
sary 7 

early availability 8 

elements of 6 

potential and available 7 

Plant tissue, building of 7 

Planting, of timber 133 

preparation of seed for 76 

table for field crops and 

grasses •. li 

table, for fruits 120 

the orchard 128 

Plant-lice, ajiple-leaf 167 

attacking cotton 154 

hop 155 

Plants and General Horticul- 
ture, Handbook of 136 

Plants, number to acre 120 

propagation of 112 

Plants, The Propagation of 136 

Plastering, materials for 465 

Pleurisy 329 

Plowing, deen, to increase 

water-holding capacity ^4 

for corn 50 

for potatoes 88 

to conserve moisture IS 

to ventilate soil 18 

Plum, attacked by peach-vel- 

lows 182 

by shot-hole fungus 184 

Plum, diseases of 184 

heading back the 124 

heavy soil for 112 

insects injurious to — ■ 

bud worms, see Bud Moth. .174 
Plum — insects injurious to — 

case-bearers 173 

fruit-tree bark-beetle 181 

green fruit worms 172 

plum - curculio ("L i 1 1 1 e 

Turk") 183 

scale insects 186 et seq 

Marianna stocks for 113 

peach stocks for 112, 113 

pockets, fruit disease of 185 

pruning the 124 

ripe fruit rot of 185 

scab 183 

seedlings, nursery for 113 

spraying calendar for 183 

yellows of 184 

Plums and Plum Culture 136 

Plumb, C. S.. 80, 403 

Plymouth Rock for caponizing.-407 

fowls 407 

varieties of 407 

Plymouth^ Rock, The 453 

Pneumonia 328 

Points of beef cattle 251 

dairy cattle 256 

the horse 257 

the pig 259 

the sheen 259 

Poisoned baits 141 

Poison fixative 141 

Poisoning from sorghum 63 

Pciisoneus Plants in the United 

States, Principal 81 

Poisonous Plants of the South.. 81 
Ital'ci^?d tides 



Poisonous Plants, Thirty 81 

Poland-China, cross with Berk- 
shire 235 

swine 223 

Pole beans 93 

culture of 93 

rules for planting 93 

support for 94 

Polled Durham, cattle 212 

Popcorn 106 

Popular borer ■. 200 

Potato Culture 109 

Potato Culture. ABC of 108 

Potato Diseases 205 

Potato, insects injurious to — 

Colorado potato-beetle 162 

flea-beetle 162 

stalk-borer 161 

striped blister-beetle 162 

wireworms 145 

Potato Scab 46 

Potato scab 163 

Potatoes for Profit 109 

Potatoes, Irish, culture 61, 88 

sprouting in storage 90 

sweet, propagation and cul- 
ture 90 

varieties of 88 

Poultices for animals 302 

Poultry Appliances and Handi- 
craft 436 

Poultry Architecture 437 

Poultry Book,. Revised Com- 
plete 1.437 

Poultry Culture .'.437 

Poultry Culture, Practical 437 

Poultry Keeper, Profitable 437 

Poultry, Profits in 436 

Poultry Raising, Five Hun- 
dred Questions and An- 
swers in 437 

Poultry Raising on the Farm. .437 
Poultry Record Book, Money 

in 437 

Poultry, The Illustrated Book 

of 436 

Poultry, beginning 405 

Poultry, breeding houses 428 

Poultry, breeds of — 

chickens 405 

ducks 41 1 

geese 413 

turkeys 414 

caponizing — 

age and size for 436 

advantages of 431 

best breeds for 436 

care of, after oneration....438 

cockerels, oreration on 437 

imperfect — slips '. 438 

incision, where made 436 

instruments for ^ 433 

losses in operation 432 

not cruel 433 

not difficult 431 

operation, the 436 

profits of 432 

table for 435 

care for egg production 419 

causes of disease 440 



Poultry, diseases of — 

bumble foo^ 447 

cholera 444 

colds 441 

corns 447 

crop bound 449 

diarrhea, white 446 

egg bound 450 

gapes 443 

lice 450 

limberneck 447 

mites 450 

roup 442 

scaly leg 448 

feeding — 

brooder chicks 415 

of ducklings 412 

for eggs 420 

of goslings 412 

sprouted oats 422 

health and disease of 439 

houses 423 

end, elevation of 423 

front, elevation of 424 

hardvyare for 428 

lumber required -. 427 

miscellaneous supplies 428 

practical 423 

Poultry (illustrations of) — 

Black Langshan 408 

Bronze Turkeys 412 

Buff Orpingtons 407 

Embden Geese 411 

Indian Rvmner Ducks 411 

Light Brahmas 410 

Pekin Ducks 410 

Plymouth Rock 406, 407 

Rhode Island Reds 409 

White Leghorns 409 

White Holland Turkeys.. ..41 2 

White Orpingtons :...408 

Wyandottes 407 

Poviltry, possible profits and ex- 
pense of ._ 428 

Poultry, selection for breeding.. 439 
Poultry, value of thorough- 
bred 430 

warmth as an egg-producer....408 

Powdery mildew of grape 195 

Potvell. E. C 135 

Poivell. E. P 135 

Powers, Stephen 280 

Prairie soil, humus content of.. 26 

Prepotency, defined 229 

Prickly heat 333 

Primary union, healing by 360 

Prime steers, characteristics of. 249 

market dem'ands in 252 

Principles of Agriculture 45 

Prize Gardening 109 

Prolapsus of the vagina 370 

Propagation and planting table 

for fruits 120 

Propagation of fruits 112 

Protein in foodstuffs 241 

Pruning Book, The 136 

Pruning, general method of 122 

object of 121 

of budded seedlings 114 

old orchards 132 

•season for ,.„,„...<... ••!..... ...121 



and names refer to fiiblwaUo'S on agrieuliural topies* 



INDEX 



513 



Pruning the apple 123 

tlic blackberry 126 

the cherry 124 

the currant 127 

the gooseberry .• 127 

the grape 125 

the orange 127 

the peach 124 

the pear 123 

the plum ,.124 

the quince 127 

the raspberry 126 

to produce low heading 114 

Publications, government agri- 
cultural, how to obtain 1 

on agricultural topics, see 
Bibliographies. 

Puddling, defined 14 

prevented by humus 18 

prevented by underdrainage.. 17 

prevented by vegetation 23 

Pullets, penning of 419 

Pulse crops, for trucking 92 

Pulse, in diagnosis 298 

Pumpkins, as field crop 62 

for trucking 96 

Pure bred animals, breeding of.227 

Putnam's scale 188 . 

Pyaemia 341 

Pyrethrum powder .....143 

a 

Ouartercracks 377 

treatment '. 377 

Quick, E. E 436 

Quicksand, increasing cost of 

tiling 42 

Q nimby' s New Bee Keeping. ...2%\ 
Quince, attacked bv apple rust.. 176 

by black rot....'. 178, 185 

by leaf-blight 176 

by pear-blight 180 

by shot-hole fungus 184 

Quince Culture 136 

Quince, fruit-spot of 180, 186 

attacked by plum-curcuIio....l83 

leaf-spot of 180, 186 

pruning the 127 

Tust 176, 186 

scale insects of l?>6 et scq 

Quinn, P. T 136 

Quotations, cattle market, how 
to interpret 277 

R 

Rabbit Keeper. Practical 281 

Rabies 344 

Radishes 99 

cabbage flea-beetle, injurious 

to 160 

Rafters, length of, to compute.. 463 

Rambouillet Merino 220 

Ram. mutton, selection of.. 261-267 

Rams, hydraulic 469 

Range cattle, feeding of 293 

Rankin. David, farm operations 
of (financial statement). ...296 

on range cattle feeding 293 

Rankin, James 453 

Rape, bloating from 64 

culture for soiling 64 

Italicized titles 



Raspberry, thinning fruit of 131 

anthracnose 196 

insects and diseases of the.. ..196 

pruning the 126 

scale 191 

Rations, compounding of 243 

daily, German standards for. .246 
Reaumur thermometer scale....467 

Rectal injections 302 

Rectum, medication for 302 

how administered 302 

Red Clover Seed 81 

Red-headed flea-beetle 158 

Red Polled cattle 215 

Red spider 175 

Refrigeration and Cold Stor- 
age 279 

Registry, no criterion of excel- 
lence 233 

Remsen, Ira J 46 

Renovating old orchards 132 

Reproductive organs, diseases 

of the 366 

Respirations, in diagnosis 298 

Respiratory organs, examina- 
tion of, in disease 325 

Reversion, defined 232 

Reynolds. M. H 384 

Rheumatism 335 

Rheumatismal pleurisy 329 

Rhode Island Red fowls 409 

Rhubarb 100 

Rhubarb Culture 109 

Rhubarb Culture, The New 109 

Rice- weevil 165 

Ridged culture 16 

Ring-bone 375 

Ring worm of cattle 353 

Ripe-rot of plum 184 

of apnle 178 

Roads and road making 42 

Roadster, selection of 257 

Roberge, David 383 

Roberts, I. P 47 

Robinson, Barnes and 108 

Roller, use of 16 

Rolling, effect on soil ventila- 
tion 18 

Rolling land, for orchard Ill 

Roof, span and pitch of 463 

.shingles for 463 

Root. A. I „ 281 

Root and Finley 281 

Root crops, annual, for truck- 
ing 96 

artichokes 62 

as stock food 58 

beets .-. 59 

carrots 60 

Root Crops for Stock 279 

Root crops, kohlrabi 61 

perennial, for trucking 99 

potatoes 61 

rutabagas 61 

turnips 60 

See also Tuber and Bulb 
Crops. 
Root development, enlarged by 

underdrainage 16, 17, 36 

Root grafting 116 

Root, L. C 281 



Root-louse, corn 146 

Root penetration, depth of 17 

Root-rot of apple 178 

of beets 163 

Roots, obstruction in tile 41 

office in ventilating soi| 19 

of fruit trees, care in hand- 
ling 128 

physical effect on soil 23 

Root-worm of grape 192 

corn 144, 145 

Ropes, strength of 469 

Rose-chafer 194 

Rose Culture, Secrets of 136 

Rose scale 191 

Rose. The 136 

Rotation of crops 26. 29, 30 

best time for manure in 50 

factor in insect control 137 

for flax-sick soil 58 

in gardening 84 

made profitable by animal 

production 226 

Rot. bacterial, of onions 163 

black, apple-fruit 178 

of grape 195 

of quince 185 

brown, of cabbage, etc 163 

of peach 183 

ripe, of plum 185 

of apple 178 

of root 178 

Roughage, evils of sale from 

farm 29 

importance of in beef-makir.CT.287 
Rough lands, loss of heat from 20 
Round-headed apple-tree borer. .169 

Round worms 351, 354, 356 

Roup, in fowls 442 

Rumen, overloading of 310 

symptoms of 310 

Rumsev, Hopkins and 204 

Rupture 318 

Ruslncorth. IVilliam A 280 

Russell. H. L 280 

Rust of apple 176 

of asparagus 162 

of quince 186, 176 

of wheat -. 156 

Rutabagas, culture 61, 98 

Rye, culture of „.57, 64 

smut of 156 



Saddle Horse, Tlic 279 

Saddle horses, breeds of 219 

Salad crops, for trucking 102 

Salivation 305 

Salmon, D. E 453 

Salsify 98 

Salt-bushes, culture for dry for- 
age 68 

Salt, for steers 291, 295 

Salts, e.xcess of, remedied by 

underdrainage 37 

soluble, importance of 7 

Sandcracks 377 

Sanders, A. H 280 

Sanders, J. H 279 

Senders, William 204 

Sanderson, E. Dwight 204 



and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. 



514 



PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING 



Sand, fine, waterliolding capac- 
ity 13 

for masonry 464 

for plastering 465 

Sandy roads, how improved 45 

San Jose scale 186, 187 

San Jose Scale 205 

San Jose Scale, Experiments 

•with Insecticides for the. ...203 
Saw-fly, attacking bush fruits.. 196 

currant 195 

grape-vine 194 

Saw-toothed grain-beetle 165 

Scabby legs in fowls 448 

Scab of the apple 177 

of the cherry 183 

of the plum 183 

of potatoes 88, 163 

of sheep 355 

Scale insects 186, 201 

Scheele's green 140 

Schreiner, S. C. C 280 

Scientific farming, David Ran- 
kin on 293 

Scions, cutting and storing 117 

Scott and Morton 48 

Scours 314 

Scratches 334 

Scurfy scale 190 

Seed-bed, early preparation of 20 
Seed, breeding and selection of 74 

corn, selection of 76 

development, drain on vital- 
ity 130 

for lawns 107 

Seed, Good, The Farmer's In- 
terest in 80 

Seed Growing, Farm Garden- 
ing and 80 

Seed, home-grown 74 

improvement and modifica- 
tion of 74 

mixtures for meadows 70 

for pastures 72 

Seed, potatoes, cutting 89 

preparation for planting 76 

"running-out" of 76 

selection, requisites in 76 

Seedlings, care of before and 

after budding 114 

growing of 112, 113 

leaf-blight of 114 

Selby, A. D 203 

Selection in breeding, rules for.227 
Semi-arid climates, pasture seed 

mixtures for 72 

Semj^ers. Frank W 48 

Septicaemia 341 

Septicaemia, Apoplectiform, in 

Chickens 453 

Sewell, Edward 383 

Shade trees, insects injurious 
to— 

bagworm 199 

brown-tailed moth 199 

canker-worms 1 72 

canker-worms, fall and 

spring 200 

cecropia, attacking walnut 201 

Cottonwood borer 200 

cottony maple scale 201 

Italicized titles 



Shade trees, insects injurious to — 

elm leaf-beetle 200 

elm scale 201 

fall webworm 170 

forest tent-caterpillar 199 

gipsy moth 198 

oyster-shell scale 202 

poplar borer 200 

pruning of 121 

scale insects, see alsol86 et seq 

walnut scale 202 

white-marked tussock-moth. 197 
Shade Trees, Three Insect En- 
emies of 206 

Shaler, N. S 47 

"Sharp-shooters," attacking cot- 
ton 154 

Shaw. Thomas....47, 80, 81, 82, 279 

Shearing of sheep 275 

Sheep, breeds of 222 

and their fleeces 272 

condition of wool in disease. .299 
continuous care of, requisite. 270 

Sheep, Diseases of 383 

Sheep, diseases of — 

anthrax 343 

bot-flies 359 

catarrh, gastro-intestinal....308 
cerebro-spinal meningitis....332 

gastro-enteritis 313 

indigestion 308 

jaundice 318 

licking disease 306 

lockjaw 340 

mouth, inflammation of 304 

parasites 354, 359 

peritonitis 319 

reproductive organs, dis- 
eases of 366 

retention of urine 322 

stomach and intestines, in- 
flammation of 313 

stomatitis 304 

tympanitis 309, 310 

wounds 360 

Sheep Feeding 280 

Sheep, Foot Rot of 384 

Sheep, how drenched 301 

Sheep Industry, History and 
Present Condition of the. ...2Sl 

Sheep, manure of .j,... 31 

mutton, characteristics of 259 

normal temperature in 299 

points of 259 

pulse of, how taken 298 

rape for 64 

Sheep Scab 384 

Sheep-shearing 275 

Sheep, silage for 389 

Sheep, The ._ 280 

Sheep, The Domestic 280 

Sheep, ticks infesting 35 

turnips for 60 

washing of, injurious 274 

well-bred, most profitable for 

mutton 261 

Shingles required for roof 463 

Shippers of prime steers, de- 
mands of 252 

Shire, English, draft breed 216 

Shocking corn for dry forage.. 66 



Shorthorn Cattle 280 

Shorthorn cattle 209 

cross with Galloway 235 

Shorthorns, as feeders 255 

Shot-hole fungus of plum 184 

Shoulder slip 365 

lameness 373 

Shredding corn for dry forage.. 67 

Shropshire sheep 221 

Sidebones in the horse 376 

Side grafting 117 

Siding, clapboards for 463 

Silage, A Book on 403 

Silage, as a bowel regulator....386 

beet-pulp 401 

for horses 388 

for sheep .- 389 

for steers 388 

for swine 389 

mixed 401 

rations for dairy cows 387 

Silo, alfalfa for the 400 

best form of 392 

bottom of 392 

brick 393 

building, general considera- 
tions in 390 

capacity of 390, 391 

clover for the 400 

corn for the 399 

cow-peas for the 400 

cylindrical, to compute ca- 
pacity of 465 

economies effected by means 

of 385 

filling the 401 

foundation of 392 

grout 394 

location of 392 

material for 393 

rectangular wooden 398 

sorghum for the 400 

soy beans for the 400 

specifications for .....396 

square, to compute capacity 

of 466 

stave ; 395 

stave, to find staves required 

for 465 

stone 393 

wall of 392 

Silos and Silage 403 

Silos. Ensilage, and Silage 403 

Sinuate pear-tree borer ...179 

Sire and dam, influence of, in 

breeding 231 

Sires, management of 237 

"Sit-fasts" 364 

Skin, conditions of, in disease. .299 

Slingerland. M. V 206 

Slippery onions 163 

Sloughs, drainage of 37 

Slug, of pear 179 

Small Fruit Culturist 136 

Small fruits and vines, diseases 

of 192 

insects injurious to 192 

Smith. F 384 

Smith, I. B 203 

Smith. IV. G 203 



and names refer to publications 07i agricultural topics. 



INDEX 



515 



Smuts of grain, general treat- 
ment for 155 

Snapping-beetles 1 45 

Snyder, Harry 46, 280 

Sod-bound condition 69, 71 

Sodding, for lawns 107 

Soil, aerated by underdrainage 35 

amendments 35 

capillary capacity increased 

by humus 18 

color of 20 

elements removed by various 

crops 24 

fertility, determining factors 7 

maintained by stock 225 

flax-sick - 58 

for gardening and trucking.. 83 

forms of nitrogen in 9 

inoculation of 52 

may be too open 18 

moisture, effect of humus on 27 
effect of underdrainage on 36 
mulch, to check evaporation 

14, 15 

native prairie — 26 

origin of 5 

particles, size of 21 

porosity due to humus 18 

preparation of, for lawns 106 

preparation of, for orchard. .128 

temperature 19 

ventilation of 18 

warmed by agency of hu- 
mus 21, 29 

warmed by underdrainage.... 36 
water, an element of fertility 11 

water, conservation of 14 

waterlogged 11 

Soiling crops 62 

Soiling Crofts and the Silo 81 

Soils, alkaline, macaroni wheat 

on SS 

salt-bushes for 68 

capacity for capillary water.. 12 
fine, advantage of humus in.. 28 

for orchards Ill 

liming of 35 

physical defects in, how rem- 
edied 22 

pore space in 22 

waterholding capacity in- 
' creased by underdrainage.. 17 
Soja beans, see Soy Beans. 
Solanaceous crops, for truck- 
ing 104 

Sore mouth, in various animals303 

Sore necks 363 

Sore throat in horses and swine 

325, 326 

Sorghum as a Forage Plant 81 

Sorghum, culture 63, 67 

for the silo 400 

poisoning 63 

Sorghum Syrup Manufacture.. 81 

Southdown sheep 220 

Southern corn-root-worm 145 

South slope, advantage of 20 

Soy Bean, The 81 

Soy beans, benefit to crops fol- 
lowing 51 

culture 52, 65, 68 

Italicized titles 



Soy beans, for the silo 400 

ground, for feed 51 

Span of roof, defined 463 

Spreading of disease, in poul- 
try 440 

Spasmodic colic 316 

Spasms of diaphragm 299, 323 

Spavin 379 

Speltz, not the same as emmer.. 57 

Spider, red 175 

Spinal cord, inflammation of. ...333 

Splints in the horse 374 

Spooner, Youatt and 279 

Sprains 365, 374 

Spraying, arsenical jjoisons for.140 
of fruits — 

the apple 166 

the cherry 185 

the grape 195 

the peach 180 

the pear 178 

the plum 183 

the quince 185 

Spraying of Plants 205 

Spraying old orchards 132 

proper method of 132 

utility of, in orchard 131 

Spring-beetles 145 

Spring canker-worms 172, 200 

Spring wheat, culture 54 

plowing for corn 50 

Square-necked grain-beetle 1 65 

Squash 96 

downy mildew of 163 

insects injurious to — 

Southern corn-root-worm.... 145 

squash-bug 160 

squash-vine borer 161 

striped cucumber-beetle ....160 

wilt diseases of V63 

Stable Guide, The American 

Gentlemen's 279 

Stack, hay in, to estimate 466 

Stalk-borer, larger corn 146 

potato 161 

Stalk-worm, tobacco 145, 151 

Stallion for breeding, selection 

of 257 

Stand of grain, poor, due to 

cold soil 20 

Stave silos 395 

Steele, J. H 383 

Steers, breeds of, for feeding.255 

followed by hogs 291 

growing, feeding of 285, 289 

native, feeding of 289 

on full feed at twelve months28S 

prime, characteristics of 249 

reasons for fattening 251 

salt for 291, 295 

silage for 388 

summer feeding of 291 

winter feeding of 294 

Stem-borers, currant 196 

Sterility 367 

Stevenson, T. P., on native cat- 
tle feeding 289 

Stezi'art, Elliott W 279 

Stewart, Hevrv 47, 135, 280 

Stezvart. Robert 279 

"Stifle out" : 378 



and names refer to publications on agriculturat topics. 



Stinking smut of wheat 156 

Stock Breeding 279 

Stockers, see Feeders. 
Stock farming, kinds distin- 
guished 227 

Stock feeding — • 

balanced rations, com- 
pounding of 243 

breeds of steers for feed- 
ing 255 

cattle, silage for 387 

chemistry of 239 

close housing not desirable283 
Corn Belt facilities for 

beef-making 283 

corn, marketing in form of 

beef 283, 289, 293 

digestibility, importance of.242 
digestible nutrients per 
pound of various feed- 
ing-stuffs (table) 244 

digestion and growth 242 

early feeding for best beef.285 
energy, heat, and fat, food- 
sources of 241 

feeding tables, how to use. .247 
fertilizing constituents of 
various foodstuffs (table) 244 

flesh-forming foods 241 

foodstuffs, composition of. .240 

choice of 240 

full feed, caution in ap- 
proaching ^ 291 

future of 239 

German feeding standards. .246 

hogs, following steers 291 

horses, silage for 388 

manurial values of various 

feeding-stuffs ....244 

marbled flesh, feeding for.. 285 
native cattle feeding, J. P. 

Stevenson on 289 

"overdone" cattle, cause 

of condition 288 

range cattle feeding, Da- 
vid Rankin on 293 

rate of gain in hogs 291 

rate of gain in steers.. 291, 295 
rations, daily, German 

standards for 246 

rations fed by L. H. Kerrick..287 

roughage, importance of 287 

salting of steers 291, 295 

sheep, silage for 389 

shredded fodder for steers... .294 

silage, feeding of 386 

steers, age and condition of, 

for feeding 255 

steers on full feed at 12 

months 285 

steers, silage for 388 

summer feeding 291 

swine, silage for 389 

winter feeding 294 

Stock, injury to timber by 133 

judging of, see Judging of 
Live Stock. 

raising, advantages of 

31, 225, 283 



516 



PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING 



Stocks for budding or gi'aft- 

ing, growing of 112 

Stomach, function in digestive 

process 243 

inflammation of 312 

worms 354 

Stomatitis 303 

Stone, Livingston 281 

Stone silos .....393 

Stored grains and seeds, ni- 

sects injurious to 164 

Store,; F. H 45 

Strangles ■ 338 

Strawberry crown-borer 1^/ 

Strati'bcrry Culture, ABC of.\36 

Strawberry Cultiirist ....136 

Strawberry, insects and dis- 
eases of the 196 

Straw, evil of burning 29 

Striped blister-beetle 16- 

cucumber-beetle 160 

Strong, W. C ..-.■■ 134 

Stupidity, symptom of disease.30U 
Subsoiling, to increase water- 
holding capacity 14 

to ventilate soil 18 

Succulent foods, causing bloat- 
ing 309 

Suck-fly, tobacco 153 

Suffolk Punch, draft breed 217 

Sugar Beet, Economic , Ento- 
mology of the 203 

Sugar-beet machinery, for plant- 
ing soy beans 52 

Sugar beets, culture 60 

Sugar Beet Seed, Selection in 

Grozving 81 

Sugar Beet, The 81 

Sugar-beet webworm 159 

Sugar Industry, American 81 

Sunlight, agency in plant 

growth 6 

Surface water, removal by 

drainage 38 

Survival of the Unlike ....^ 136 

Swedish turnips, see Rutabagas. 

STveet Potato Culture 110 

Sweet Potatoes ....110 

Swellings, symptomatic of dis- 
ease 300 

Swine, breeds of 223 

diseases of — 

catarrh and sore throat 326 

catarrh, gastro-intestinal 308 

gastro-enteritis 313 

hog cholera 348 

hydrophobia 344 

indigestion 308 

lockjaw 340 

lumpy jaw 350 

mouth, inflammation of 304 

parasites 3^6 

peritonitis ....319 

reproductive organs, dis- 
eases of .....366 

stomach and intestines, in- 
flammation of 313 

stomatitis 304 

swine plague 348 

wounds 360 

Itahiized titles 



Swine Husbandry 281 

Swine, judging of 258 

normal pulse in 298 

normal temperature in 299 

Swine Plague and Hog Chol- 
era, Serum Treatment of...-3S4 

Swine, points of 259 

rape for 64 

silage for 389 

Symbiosis, defined 9 

Symptomatic anthrax ..342 

Syringe, fountain, use for ani- 
mals 302 

Syrphus-flies, beneficial 138 

T 



Taft, L. R 108, 109, 135 

Tags in fleeces 275 

Tamworth swine 225 

Tapeworms 354 

Teats, sore, scabby 369 

Teeth, uneven 305 

Teething, in horses 305 

Temperature as afi'ecting fer- 
tility 19 

in diagnosis 299 

of soil, affected by under- 

drainage 36 

Tent-caterpillar, apple-tree 169 

forest 199 

Teosinte, for soiling 65 

Terry, T. B 108, 136, 279 

Tetanus 340 

Texas itch in horses 352 

Texture of soil, improved by 

lime 35 

Thermometer scales 467 

Thinning of fruit on trees 130 

of timber 133 

Thomas and Wood 134 

Thomf'son. Fred S 109 

Thoracic breathing, defined 299 

Thorn-headed worm 356 

Thoroughbred, English 219 

"Throwing back." or reversion. 232 

"Thumi's," breathing in ._ 299 

distinguished from palpita- 
tion 323 

Ticks on sheep 355 

Tile drainage, what it does 35 

Tiling, cost of 41 

method of 40 

Tillage, implements for 14 

for orchards 129 

to aerate soil 18 

to conserve moisture 14 

to remedy physical defects... 22 
Tilth, affecting temperature.... 20 

Timber and Its Diseases 136 

Timber on the farm, care of... 132 
round, to compute volume of.462 
square, to compute board- 
measure contents of 462 

Timothy and clover in rotation 26 

Tobacco bud worm 153 

Tobacco Culture 82 

Tobacco, insects injurious to — 

cigarette beetle 153 

horn worm ...152 

potato flea-be»tle 162 

and names refer to publications on agricultural topics 



Tobacco, insects injurious to — 

tobacco bud-worm 153 

tobacco flea-beetle 153 

tobacco stalk-worm 151 

tobacco suck-fly 153 

Tobacco Leaf 82 

Tobacco, Methods of Curing.... 82 

Tobacco Soils 82 

Tomatoes, culture 104 

insects injurious to — 

corn ear-worm 147 

potato flea-beetle 162 

striped blister-beetle 162 

varieties 105 

Tomato Growing 110 

Topography, affecting soil tem- 

jicrature 20 

Toulouse geese 413 

Transplanting, directions for... 85 

of budded trees 115 

Trap^lantcrns or Moth-watch- 
ers 206 

Tree-hopjier, buft'alo 175 

Tree Planting, Practical 136 

Tree, standing, to estimate vol- 
ume of 462 

to estimate height of 462 

Trees, number to acre 120 

Trees of the Northern United 

States 136 

Trees, wounds in 120 

Trellis, forms for the grape. ...125 
Trocar and cannula, use for 

bloating 309, 310 

danger in use on sheep 311 

Trotter, American 218 

Trotting Horse, Training the.279 
Trout, Domesticated: How to 

Breed and Grozv 281 

Trowbridge, J. N 134 

Trucking — annual root crops 

for 96 

cole crops for 101 



corn for 106 

perennial root crops for 99 

pulse crops for 92 

salad crops for 102 

soil for 83 

solanaceous crops for 104 

tuber and bulb crops for 88 

vine crops for 94 

Tuber and bulb crops, see also 

Root Crops. 
Tuberculin, inoculation with. ...347 

Tuberculin Test, The 384 

Tuberculosis 346 

Tuberculosis and the Tubercu- 
lin Test 384 

Tuberculosis in Relation to 
Animal Industry and Pub- 
lic Health ..-384 

Tuberculosis, Legislation with 

Regard to Bovine 384 

Tumors 365 

Turf, Handbook of the 279 

Turf, transnlanting of 107 

Turkexs and How to Grow 

Them 454 

Turkeys ^\^ 

Turkeys, Black-Head of 454 



INDEX 



517 



Turkeys, see also Poultry. 

notes on care of 414 

young, require attention 414 

Turnip, brown rot of the 163 

culture 61 

Turnips, for sheep 60 

for trucking 97 

cabbage flea-beetle injurious 

to 160 

Turnips Swedish, see Rutaba- 
gas. 
Tussock-moth, white-marked... .197 
Twelve-spotted asparagus bee- 
tle 1,S7 

Twig-borer, apple 169, 193 

Twine, for tying fleeces 276 

Tympanitis 308 

Type and breed distinguisher..227 

U 

Udder, congestion and inflam- 
mation of 368 

Ulcers in mouth 303 ct seq 

Underdrainage, object and 

method of 35 

cost of tiling in 41 

for alkali spots 9, i7 

to conserve moisture 16 

to remedy physical defects.. 22 

to ventilate soil 19 

when beneficial 37 

Up-grading, defined ...234 

Urinary organs, diseases of the320 

Urination, frequent 321 

Urine, examination of 320 

retention of 322 

Urticaria 334 



\'agina, inflammation of 367 

prolapsus of 370 

J'flu Ornain 109 

Van Slyke, L. L 46 

Variation, law of 236 

Variegated cut-worm 156 

Vaughan and Strangeway 384 

Vegetable Gardening 110 

Vegetable Gardening, Princi- 
ples of 110 

N'egetable garden and trucking 
crops, cultural directions 

for 83 

l^cgetable Garden, The 110 

N'egetable matter, see Humus. 

Vegetables. Opcn-Air 109 

Vegetables Under Glass 110 

Vegetation, sickly, what it indi- 
cates 11, 18 

Veneer grafting 116 

Ventilation of poultry houses. .425 

of soil 18, 19, 28. 35 

Vetch, as orchard cover crop... 129 
hairy, culture for dry forage 68 

Veterinary Anatomy 384 

Veterinary Hygiene, A Manu- 
al of 384 

Veterinary Materia Medica 

and Therapeutics 384 

Veterinary Medicine 384 

Veterinary Medicine and Sur- 
gery, Clinical 384 

Itahcized iitlcs 



Veterinary Physiology, A Man- 
ual of ; 384 

Veterinary Therapeutics and 

Pharmacology 384 

Vicious Horses, How to Han- 
dle and Educate 279 

X'ictoria swine 224 

\'ine crops, for trucking 94 

N'itriol, blue, to kill weeds.... 78 

X'olvulus of the intestines 317 

Voorhees, E. B 47 

W 

Walker, Ernst 135 

Wallace, H 279 

Wallis-Taylor, A. J 279 

Walnut, attacked by cecropia.201 

Walnut scale 202 

PValsh, J. H 279 

Wanklvn, J. A 280 

Ward, H. M 136 

Ware, Lewis S 81 

Warfield, William 280 

Waring, George E 46, 47 

Warming of soil 20, 21, 36 

Warm soil in spring, necessity 

of 20 

Warrington, R 46 

Washing of sheep, injurious....27^ 
Water, amount required by 

crops 12 

capillary, defined 12 

in fine soils 22 

cress 103 

free, defined 12 

in foodstuffs 240 

in soils, kinds of 12 

not all available to crops 13 

office in soil 11 

JVater Supply for Animals 384 

Water-hojding capacity affected 

by size of soil grains 22 

Waterlogged soil 11 

Water;iielons 95 

Waterpowers 469 

Waterspouts, defined 123 

Water-table, defined 12 

how to find 37 

lowering of, by underdrain- 
age 16 

Watson, George C 453 

Waugh, F. A 135, 136 

Wax, for grafting ,119 

Webb, James 134 

Web'worm, corn-root 145, 151 

fall, of apple 170 

garden 159 

sugar-beet 159 

Weeds and Hozv to Kill Them 82 
Weeds and their eradication.... 77 

Weeds, annuals 77 

Weeds, Hoiv to Eradicate Them 82 

Weeds, Legislation Against 82 

Weeds, poisonous ..; 79 

seeding and sprouting peren- 
nials 79 

seeding perennials 78 

Weevil, cow-pea 166 

bean 166 

granary 165 

Alexican cotton-boll 154 



Weevil, pea 165 

rice 1 6S 

strawberry 197 

Wcidenmann, J 134 

Weight, afjothecaries' 45^ 

avoirdupois, or commercial. .457 

troy, or jewelers' 457 

Weights and measures — 

circular measures 458 

decimal numbers for rapid 

conversion 458, 459 

length, measures of 4S6 

metric system 459, 460 

surface, measures of" 456 

weight, measures of 457 

volume, measures of 457 

Weights, legal, per bushel 468 

Weights of various substances 

for given volumes 467 

Weld and Du Hays 279 

Western bean-beetle 158 

Wet seasons, buckwheat in 

Wet soil a cold one 21 

Wet spring, followed by dry 

summer 17 

Whale-oil soap for spraying 142 

Wheat bran, as fed by L. H. 

Kerrick 287 

Wheat chinch-bug, injurious to.l48 

Hessian fly, injurious to 148 

late sowing of, to escape fly.. 148 

loose smut of 156 

macaroni 55 

rust 156 

spring, culture 54 

stinking smut of 156 

stooling out, yellowing and 

dying of 148 

winter, culture S3 

varieties resistant to Hes- 
sian fly 54 

vetches with 68 

Wheat Culture 82 

Wheat Growing, Jnsect Ene- 
mies of 204 

Wheel-hoe, essential in garden- 
ing 85 

Whip grafting 116 

worms 356 

White grubs 149 

White. Joseph J 134 

White-marked tussock-moth ....197 

Wicks»n, Edward J 134 

"Wide" nutritive ratio, de- 
fined 243 

inicox, L. M 47 

Williams. W. L 382 

Wilt diseases 163 

Wind colic 315 

Windmills 469 

Window Flower Garden, The .136 

Wing, E 281 

Wing. Henry H 280 

Winslow, K 384 

Winter Care of Horses and 

Cattle 279 

IJ 'inter Lamb, The 281 

\\'inter-killing of fruits 121 

of meadows 69 

Well. F. W 403 



Womb, inflammation of 366 

tjfid names refer to fiiblications on agricultural topics. 



518 



PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING 



Wooden silos 398 

Wood lot, care of 132 

Wood, Thomas and 134 

Woods, various, value^ and 

weight of .' 463 

Wool-boxes, tight 276 

Wool, breeds of sheep and 

their ........272 

condition of, as affecting 

value 27 1 

condition of, in disease 299 

grading of 2V 

industry, outlook for future 

of 269 

marketing of 275 

sheep-shearing 275 

tags in fleeces 275 

tight wool-boxes an injury. ...276 

twine for tying fleeces 276 

United States wool produc- 
tion 269 

value of, as affected by flock 

management 270 

Italicized titles 



Wool, washing of sheep injurious 

to 274 

wool-growers, ten points for. 277 
wool-growing alone unprofit- 
able 267 

world's wool production 269 

Woolly bear 157 

aphis of the apple 167 

Work-horse, selection of 257 

Worms, causing bronchitis in 

swine 357 

treatment 357 

kidney, in swine 357 

large round, in horse and 

mule 351 

in swine 356 

lung, in cattle 353 

])in, in horse and mule 351 

in swine 356 

round, in sheep 354 

tape, in sheep 354 

thorn-head, in swine 356 

twisted stomach, in sheep 354 



Worms, whip, in swine 356 

Wounds, Antiseptic Treat- 
ment of ;...384 

Wounds, treatment of 361 

Wright, Lewis 453, 454 

Wyandotte for caponizing 407 

fowls 407 

Wyman. W. E. A 382, 383 



Yellow bear 157 

"Yellow leaf" of grape 195 

Yellow-necked caterpillar, of 

apiile 1 70 

Yellows in plums 113 

of peach 182 

of plum 185 

Yorkshire, large, swine ....' 224 

Youatt and Spooner 279 

Z 

Zebra caterpillar 159 



ajid names refer to publicatiofis on agricultural topics. 



CATALOG 



OF THE 



SHANNON BOOKS 

Sex Hygiene, Personal and Social 
Purity, Eugenics 




TITLES: 

PERFECT MANHOOD PERFECT WOMANHOOD 

PERFECT BOYHOOD PERFECT GIRLHOOD 

GUIDE TO SEX INSTRUCTION 

HEREDITY EXPLAINED 

STORY OF LIFE 

SPOONING 



THE S. A. MULLIKIN COMPANY 

Omcial Publishers : : : MARIETTA, OHIO 




PERFECT 
WOMANHOOD 

A book for every young 
woman. Just from the 
press, illustrated. A com- 
panion volume to Per- 
fect Manhood 



It contains vital information, counsel, 
inspiration and revelation for women. 
It is sane, safe, simple, scientific and 
practical. Women have their problems 
as well as men. The author has for 
many years, lectured to mass audiences 
of women, and annually to many 
thousands of school and college girls. 
Many come to him with their problems, 
personally or by confidential correspondence. 

This book presents the information that should be given during 
the years of growing girlhood, developing womanhood and early 
wifehood and motherhood. 

It contains an illustrated chapter on Physical Exercises, by 
one of the leading physical culture directors of the country, that 
can be easily learned and practiced in the home. No longer is 
a premium placed on the frail body of a woman. She can and 
should possess a well-formed, strong and healthy body. 

The chapter on "Beauty by Bathing," by Miss Annette 
Kellerman, tells in a simple and charming manner the many 
methods she has successfully employed in developing health, 
strength and beauty. The book is appropriately illustrated. 

The incidental announcement by the author of his purpose _ 
to write Perfect Womanhood, brought many advanced and un- 
solicited orders. 

The second edition of 15,000 copies, now ready — ^first edition 
sold in advance of press notices. Hundreds of thousands will 
be sold. 

Every woman over fifteen years of age should have a copy of 
this book. 

Bound in fine clott, postpaid, 75c 




PERFECT MANHOOD 

A book for every man, single or 

married. Over 100,000 copies 

ordered in advance of 

press notices 



Recently revised, greatly enlarged and 
appropriately illustrated 



Every sentence of this greatest of all 
books for men 's a chaste, practical, 
scientific explanation of man's sexual 
nature. 

One college president said of the 
book, "If I were sixteen years of age 
and could know what I now know, and 
_ the cost of Perfect Manhood were fifty 

times the price, I'd rather beat rock at 50 cents per day, to 
pay for it, than to be without this book." 

A man of wealth and influence in Texas said to the author, 
following a lecture to men: "If I could recall twenty years and 
begin married life over with the information I have gained 
from Perfect Manhood, I'd gladly give up all my wealth and 
start over." 

Perhaps no living man has interviewed, lectured to and cor- 
responded with more men, single and married, than the author 
of this book. 

This personal touch with men, added to his life of study and 
research, has enabled him to write a book for men which is 
pronounced by the highest authorities in the world to be the 
most practical in its field. While scientific, the book is as simple 
as it is practical. Three-fourths of all men, single and married, 
are said by authorities on the subject, to have either an imag- 
inary or real sex problem. 

The latest edition of Perfect IManhood has a chapter devoted 
exclusively to questions and answers covering every phase of 
the problems of men. These are among the most important ques- 
tions asked by thousands of men seeking the author's counsel, 
and his safe, sane, chaste, practical and scientific answers. 

Employers have ordered this book by the hundreds, to present 
to their employees. Lecturers, evangeUsts, ministers and social 
workers sell them by the thousands, in connection with their 
work. Parents buy them for their sons; men of all ages pur- 
chase them at sight; each volume sold brings two new orders 
from friends. 

Bound xa fine cloth, postpaid, 75c 



PERFECT BOYHOOD 

For Every Boy From Ten to Fifteen Years of Age. Contains 
Wiiat Boys Ought to Know and No More. 

Just to the extent that prevention is better than restoration 
or reformation, it is wiser to place Perfect Boyhood in the hand 
of a twelve-year-old boy than to wait until he is a young man, 
and then give him Perfect Manhood. Safeguard your boy with 
a knowledge of himself, and, when he is a man, he will possess 
self-control. 

Since few boys have been told in a safe and truthful way 
about their origin, the author tells the stories of life in the first 
chapters of the book. When the boy is only four to seven years 
old, the parents can use the book in telling him the stories of 
' life. When he is ten he may be given 

the book and requested to read it. Will 
a boy read the took? All normal boys 
will eagerly read it with great profit to 
themselves. The stupid and indifferent 
boy will read it, where he would read 
no other book. A boy has a natural 
interest in knowing the facts. contained 
in this volume. He usually gets them in 
half truths from wrong sources. In 
Perfect Boyhood he will get the infor- 
mation he should have and he will get 
it in the right way. 

Bound in paper, 20c; cloth, postpaid, 40c 




PERFECT GIRLHOOD 

For Every Girl From Ten to Fifteen Years 

of Age. Contains What Girls Ought to 

Know and No More. A Companion 

Volume to Perfect Boyhood. 

This book was taken from the first 
division of Perfect Womanhood. Few 
young women have ever received this 
information in the right way, and they 
should form their ideals of child-training before they are mar- 
ried. It is published in this convenient form for the reason that 
Perfect Womanhood is too advanced for a small girl. Where the 
girl is four, six or eight years old, the mother can use the book 
in telling her daughter the story of life. When she is eleven or 
twelve, the book can be placed safely in her hand to read. 

Many mothers do not realize the social dangers to which 
small girls are exposed. It is wiser to place Perfect Girlhood in 
the hand of a twelve-year-old girl than to wait and give her 
Perfect Womanhood when she is sixteen. 

Bound in paper, 20c; cloth, postpaid, 40c 



HOW TO TELL THE STORY 
OF LIFE 

Recently Revised, Greatly Enlarged and Illustra- 
ted—Simple, Practical, Charming 

The book contains the following chapters : "The Right of a 
Child to a Knowledge of Sex," "The Old Way and the Results," 
"Who Should Give This Knowledge?" "When and What Knowl- 
edge Should be Given?" "How Should this Knowledge be 
Given?" "A Talk About Baby Plants," "A Talk About Baby 
Oysters and Fish," "A Talk About Baby Insects and Birds," 
"A Talk About Animal and Human Babies." This book does 
rot censure parents for not giving their children the instruction 
they should, but tells parents and teachers how to perform this 
duty. The author not only told these stories to his own children, 
but he has told them to many hundred audiences. He has not 
only learned how to tell them, but he has learned how to teach 
others to tell them. 

This valuable little book is uniform in size and style with 
Perfect Boyhood and Perfect Girlhood, and sells at same low 
price. 

Postpaid, paper, 20c; cloth, 40c 



SPOONING 

NEW— NOTHING LIKE IT — JUST FROM 
THE PRESS 

What is spooning? Has it a function in the economy of 
nature? H so, what is that function? Do the opposite sex 
among the lower animals spoon? If so, when and why? Has 
it a function in human society? If so, does it belong to single 
or married life? What is the relation of spooning to our social 
problems? Is it a natural expression of love between lovers? 
Has it any relation to sex? In a strictly scientific and ethical 
manner these questions are frankly and fully discussed. Millions 
of people, single and married, will want to read it. Aside from 
a natural curiosity, there will be a sincere and intelligent interest 
in the author's views on this social problem. The original and 
startling revelations in this book will hold the reader spellbound 
from start to finish. Order a copy at once, read it, then you will 
want more of them for your neighbors. 

Paper binding, postpaid to any address, only ISc 




GUIDE TO SEX 
INSTRUCTION 

Vital Facts of Life For All 

Ages. A Priceless Book 

For Every Home. 



EVERY FATHER AND MOTHER, 
EVERY MATURED MAN AND 
WOMAN, EVERY TEACHER AND 
MINISTER, SHOULD HAVE THIS 
GREAT BOOK. 



This book is a complete and comprehensive gu'de for parents, 
showing them, how to tell the story of life to a child, for parents 
and teachers, showing them how to give timely instruction, advice 
and warning to boys and girls at the ages of greatest suscepti- 
bility and danger. It contains vital information for young men 
and women during the latter years of adolescence, ?nd for ma- 
tured men and women, married or single. 

The best way of imparting personal purity and sex instruction 
to children, to youths and to young people, has been a most 
difficult problem. The author was for nine years a teacher of 
biology, has made a life study on social problems, has lectured 
to thousands of audiences, mixed and segregated, on every topic 
contained in this book. Scholars marvel at his scientific accuracy, 
while the masses appreciate his childlike simplicity. The first 
aim and guiding purpose of the author in writing this book has 
been to use plain words and to give easily understood directions 
to parents and teachers. 



The contents of this book are shown on opposite page. 



CONTENTS OF 

Guide To Sex Instruction 



OR 



How To Teach Personal Purity 



FIVE BOOKS IN ONE VOLUME— EACH A 
PRICELESS GEM 



Book 1 — Childhood 



The Right of a Child to the 

Knowledge of Sex. 
First Story — Baby Plants. 
Second Story — Baby Oysters 

and Fish. 

Book 2 — Boyhood 

A Talk to Fathers. 

Father's First Talk — Boys 
Make Men. 

Father's Second Talk — Perfect 
Boys Make Perfect Men. 

Father's Third Talk — Imper- 
fect Boys Become Imperfect 
Men. 

Father's Fourth Talk — How to 
Live a Pure Life. 



Book 4 
Young Manhood 

The Deeper Significance of 
Sex. 

Continence. 

Prostitution. 

Venereal Diseases. 

A Young Man's Ethics. 

]\Ianhood Wrecked and Re- 
gained. 

Practical Questions Answered. 



Third Story — Baby Birds. 
Fourth Story — Baby Animals 

and Man. 
Practical Questions Answered. 

Books— Girlhood 

A Talk to ]\Iothers. 

Mother's First Talk — The Fe- 
male Form. 

Mother's Second Talk — Dawn- 
ing of Womanhood. 

Mother's Third Talk— Choos- 
ing a Chum. 

]\lother's Fourth Talk — Confi- 
dential Advice. 

IMother's Fifth Talk— A Small 
Girl's Ethics. 

Books 
Young Womanhood 

The Real Significance of Sex. 

The Vicious Novel. 

The Public Dance. 

A Young Woman's Ethics. 

The Miracle of Motherhood. 

Practical Questions Answered. 



This book contains manv beautiful Wafer Color Illustrations 
and Half Tones, and has 270 pages of matter. The five volumes, 
bound singly, sell at $2.45. All bound in this one large and 
beautiful volume, in fine Vellum Deluxe cloth, postpaid, $1.25. 




HEREDITY 

EXPLAINED 

Every Child Has An Incon- 
trovertible Right to Be 
Weil-Born 



NO ®NE HAS A MORAL RIGHT TO 
FOREDOOM HIS UNBORN CHILD TO 
A LIFE OF UNDEVELOPMENT ON 
THE EARTH PLANE, BEFORE IT 
SEES THE LIGHT OF DAY. 



Forests are Protected, Swine are Inspected 
and Children are Neglected 



Heredity and environment are the agencies used by intelli- 
gent men in developing and perfecting vegetables, fruits and 
domestic animals. Heredity, environment and the grace of God 
are the three agencies to be used in man's development. 

More interest has been taken in the study of heredity and the 
application of its principles during the past five years than 
during the previous ninety-five years. 

This book should be read by all marriageable and young 
married people. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Chapter. 

1. Heredity, a Fact. 

2. Heredity Explained. 

3. Choosing a Companion. 

4. Physical, Mental and Moral 

Preparation for Parent- 
hood. 
6. Prenatal Training. 



Chapter. 

6. Delinquencies, Causes and 

Cures. 

7. Birth Marks. 

8. Heredity, Environment and 

Redemption. 

9. Courtship, Marriage and 

Divorce. 



Price, postpaid, Kne clotL, only 75c; bound in paper, postpaid, 30c 

THE S. A. MULLIKIN COMPANY 

Official Publishers :: :: MARIETTA, OHIO 



